CHILD REARING PRACTICES.   Term Paper ID:29101 Click to get this paper

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Paper Abstract: Discusses trends from 1600 to the 1970s. Harsh treatment of children during Renaissance and Puritan periods. Philosophical perspectives: Hobbs. Locke. Rousseau. Freud. Erik Erikson. Parental authoritarianism vs. permissiveness. Behaviorist view of John Watson. Nurturing perspective of Dr. Benjamin Spock, and value of spontaneity. Anthropologist Margaret Mead and theory of imprinting. Diana Baumrind's study of parenting styles. Paper Introduction: The history of child-rearing practices was characterized by radical vacillations between a positive and nurturing concept and a negative and suppressive perspective of children. Its evolution was inextricably interwoven with the society’s cultural concept of childhood. For example, according to Aries (1962), children were initially considered to be miniature versions of adults in medieval society; thus, they were initiated into the world of adult functions once they turned six. However, in the later eras, children were regarded as beings that were distinguished from adults. While the end of the Renaissance began with the brutal oppression of children, the 1970s celebrated and cultivated the natural child. This paper documents the changes in perspectives and practices of child rearing from 1600 to 1970s. Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. However, children who are punished or mocked for their effortsare likely to develop a sense of guilt, thus undermining their self-confidence in the future (Erikson, 1963). 1-2). Consequently, the children ofpermissive children tended to have difficulties with controlling theirimpulses and persisting with new tasks (Seifert, 1994). The origins of humankind. The sensuous child: Dr. Benjamin Spock and the sexual revolution. Strachey, Trans.). Two primary reasonsmay have accounted for the time elapse in the child rearing discussionsbetween the two different eras. The final category consisted of permissive parents who didnot have expectations of their children. On the other hand, parents with authoritarian stylesset high demands for their children, but were unresponsive to theirchildren's needs. In theearly years, the cultural conceptions of the nature of children played asignificant role in determining how parents treated their children. E. The first possible reason is the eruptionof political revolutions in the U.S. At the same time, the numerous significant epidemics in the U.S. Essentially, the brains of these infants can be reprogrammedto absorb new information such as linguistic patterns of a language and theaffection of caregivers. According to this newperspective of child rearing, even the suppression of genital activity isconsidered to be detrimental to the natural development of children wholearn through physical sensations and exploration of their environment.Instead of tightly regulating their activity, Dr. Benjamin Spock toldparents that they should provide their children with the freedom todiscover their worlds through their own activities such as "dig[ging] inearth and sand and wade in mud puddles": "When [the child] has chances todo these delightful things, it enriches his spirit, makes him a warmerperson" (qtd. (n.d.). New York: BasicBooks.Library of Congress. At the same time, he alsobelieved in acknowledging the individuality of different children andcultivating their potential by allowing them freedom to discover theirenvironment (Berk, 1994, pp. From Freud's perspective, parental authoritarianism was an inevitabledevelopment of the children's dependence on their parents. The parents thus playedthe key role in developing the superego within the children, thusinitiating them on their journey of internalizing the external restraintsof society (Freud, 1964). During this stage, childrenlearn how to perform basic gross and fine motor functions. In this way, the children not only internalized thevalues of their parents, but also the perceptions of society (cited inRieff, 1963). S., & Fullmer, D. Childhood and Society (2nd ed.). Therefore, parents should notintervene with the children's natural development and give them adequatefreedom for them to realize their potential by regulating their ownimpulses and interacting with their environment (cited in "Concept ofChildhood in History," p. Child rearing was a regimented process in which parentswere expected to prepare children for adult life. At the same time, these ideas were also challenged bythe nurturing perspectives of child rearing advocated by Dr. Benjamin Spockand Margaret Mead. 5). 62). (1999). Because the parents placed excessive emphasis ontheir children's penises, these children began to develop a self-consciousness about their male sexuality and the need to suppress theirgenital activity. According to Hobbes, without the law and orderimposed by a government, human beings are liable to destroy one another inpursuit of their own selfish desires (cited in Hinnant, 1977). In thisHobbesian world, children in all social classes were neglected and brutallyabused by their parents. Based on the pendulumpatterns of the past history, it is likely that child-rearing trends willcontinue to change in tandem with sociocultural changes. The brief overview of the history of child-rearing practices hasilluminated the dramatic changes that had occurred over the years. Child and adolescent development. Thomas Hobbes. Genetics and imprinting. The history of childhood. Furthermore, Dr. Spock also placedtremendous emphasis on the mental health of children by highlighting theneed to show infants extensive affection and attention. Margaret Mead: human nature and the power of culture. (1994). S., Blehar, M. By ensuring that their infants' needs are met on aconsistent basis, parents will be able to forge a strong relationship withtheir infants based on trust. According to Freud, the bourgeois parents' repression of theirchildren's sexual activities at a young age played a critical role in theirchild rearing practices. According to Kruppa (1985),3 percent of infants died before they were two-weeks old during thepreindustrial era. W. Watson even provided detailedinstructions on how and when to show affection: "If you must, kiss themonce on the forehead when they say goodnight. 5). 8-1 ). Norton. Retrieved March 11, 2 2, from http://www.noogenesis.com/malama/suffering/Fullmer/therapy.htmlJenkins, H. New York: W. 4). (n.d.). On the other hand, parents who discourage their children fromlearning about their abilities will generate shame and self-doubt in theirchildren (Erikson, 1963). L. However, only the early experiences of pleasantencounters will enhance the capacity of infants to be responsive to theirenvironmental influences (Leakey, 1994; Ishikawa & Fullmer, 1998). in "Concept of Childhood in History," p. (n.d.). Because thechildren's lives were interwoven with their relationships with theirparents, children were unlikely to question their parents' power over them. (1985, March-April). For example,according to Aries (1962), children were initially considered to beminiature versions of adults in medieval society; thus, they were initiatedinto the world of adult functions once they turned six. 1-2). From her observations, Baumrind (1967) found that the most developedchildren had parents with authoritative styles. Expanding on the emphasis on the nurturing power of parents andintegrating the theories of Freud and Mead, Erik Erikson (1963) alsocontributed significantly to the discussion on child rearing practices withhis eight life stages. Centuries of childhood. By forbidding their male children from touchingtheir penises, the bourgeois parents in the 19th century endowed the peniswith extraordinary power. Byemphasizing certain aspects of human behavior, adults of various culturespass on the specific components to children and ensure that they conform tothe cultural expectations (Library of Congress, 2 2). Beginning in the 195 s, the rigid and authoritarian relationshipbetween parents and children was transformed radically. Educational involvement, Vol VI. (1964). Family therapy as the rites of passage. N. Thomas Hobbes' belief that all humanbeings are born with a self-serving character further promoted the negativeconception of children. Baumrind(1967) conducted a series of observations of the interaction betweenparents and their preschool children in the natural and laboratory setting. S. 6). The French Revolution of 1789 also led to the rise ofdemocratic ideas that rippled across continental Europe ("PoliticalRevolutions," 1999, pp. Retrieved March 8, 2 2, from http://blue.csbs.albany.edu:8 /6 4/historydev.htmDavis, M. ReferencesAinsworth, M. Demanding parents set highstandards for their children and expect the latter to fulfill them at allcosts. Child development. (1972). The oppressive practices of bourgeois parents would persist into the2 th century in the behaviorist perspectives of child rearing as proposedby Dr. John Watson. Collected papers: sexuality and the psychology of love. Therefore, Freud noted that parents often exerted excessive control overtheir children and suppressed their independence and initiative.Essentially, the children in bourgeois families were expected to be seen,not heard (cited in Rieff, 1963). Essentially, thesechildren were taught to quash their natural impulses and demonstrateunwavering compliance to adult authority (Jenkins, p. Princeton: Houghton Mifflin Co.Winningstad, C. Shake hands with them in themorning" (qtd. In his work, Locke offered parentsspecific directions on how to raise their children. Although Rousseau also rejected the notion of children as sinfulbeings, he believed that children possess a tremendous intuitive capacityof distinguishing between right and wrong. Freud, S. Extending Baumrind's study of parenting styles, Mary Ainsworth andher colleagues (1978) focused their study on the attachment relationshipbetween mothers and their children. The breakout of influenza in 1732-33, 1781-1782 and 1847-1848 all over the world, along with the epidemics ofmeasles, smallpox and Yellow Fever in the U.S. Retrieved March 8, 2 2, from http://www.aofe.org/Downloads/AofECh3.pdf 2). Finally, Spock also invoked Freud'sargument about the consequences of suppressing male genital activity byadvising parents to ignore their children's initial masturbatoryactivities. New York: The Psychohistory Press.Epidemics in the U.S.-1657-1918. Based on the advice of Watson and his followers such as B. Instead of treating their children as evil creatures,the parents should serve as a caring and respectful teacher whose role isto inculcate positive values in their children. (1994). With her observational study on parenting styles, Diana Baumrind(1967) explored the validity of Erikson's theory about parents. During the firststage-the phase of infancy, parents need to be highly responsive to theirdependent infants. New York: Vintage Books.Berk, L. Patterns of attachment: a psychological study of the Strange Situation. (1977). In another part of the world,a revolution against King Louis XVI also occurred in France in 1789, as theThird Estate revolted against their socioeconomic situation over the nextthree years. (1999). When the children reach ages four to five (the third stage), they arebusily engaged in expanding their abilities by actively exploring theirenvironment and initiating various activities. Retrieved March 9, 2 2, from Library of Congress Website: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/mead/mead-preview.htmlPolitical revolutions. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.Concept of childhood in history. They found that caringparents were more likely to have secure infants who have trust in theavailability of their parents than other parents. The raters found thatthe children were not only happy, but also displayed self-confidence inmastering new tasks. D. According to Spock, by suppressing this activity, parents willmake children feel scared about certain parts of their body (Jenkins, pp. Apart frominstructions such as providing their children with "plenty of open air,exercise and sleep," (qtd. Retrieved March 9, 2 2, from http://web.mit.edu/21fms/www/faculty/henry3/pub/spock.htmlKruppa, P. Instead ofsuppressing the children's natural instincts and refraining from the showof affection, psychologists advised parents to celebrate the naturalimpulses and spontaneity of their children. (2 2, January 28). New York: W. Therefore, many of the philosophers weremost likely distracted by the political events and invested their energiesin the discussion of these events. Thus, they often engage in open discussionsand negotiations with their children (cited in Seifert, 1994). Nonetheless, Sigmund Freud's psychodynamic theory and hispreoccupation with the Oedipus complex refocused attention on thesignificance of child rearing practices on the future development ofchildren. 8). (2 1). Retrieved, March 12, 2 2, from http://members.aol.com/AdamCo9991/epidemics.htmlErikson, E. Retrieved March 11, 2 2, from http://www.humanities- interactive.org/texas/wtw/history_of_childhood.htmLeakey, R. Boston: Twayne Publishers.Ishikawa, J. Sociopathic behavior-genetics or imprinting? Parents who provide their children with sufficientfreedom to develop their capacities will promote the children's sense ofautonomy. andthe world from 1657 to 1859 were also representative of the fact thatpeople during those centuries had had to deal with the numerous deaths offamily members, including young infants. On the other hand,infants who did not receive consistent maternal care tend to be insecure. in Jenkins, p. (1962). Infants were expected tosleep, eat and excrete at designated times (Davis, 1999). Therefore, the children of these parents were withdrawnand unhappy. Its evolution was inextricablyinterwoven with the society's cultural concept of childhood. Erikson's (1963) first three life stages areparticularly relevant to this discussion on childrearing. F.Skinner, middle class parents replaced breast-feeding with bottle-feedingwithout considering the adverse consequences of the loss of bonding withtheir children. Thispaper documents the changes in perspectives and practices of child rearingfrom 16 to 197 s. Norton & Co. 1). Lockeanalogized newborn infants to a blank slate (tabula rasa); therefore, theirdevelopment is dependent on their parents' child raising practices andtheir environment. While Ainsworth and others (1978)believe that all children develop a special attachment bond with theirparents, the parenting styles of the parents do affect the nature of theattachment relationship with their children. Retrieved March 12, 2 2, from http://regentsprep.org/Regents/global/themes/change/pol.cfmRieff, P. However, the age of Enlightenment led to the emergence ofintellectual figures who challenged the religious and Hobbesianperspectives about children. The history of childhood. The second stage-the toddler phase-is characterized by the children'sacquisition of a variety of basic skills. Her theory ofimprinting, a method of teaching children how to learn, has inspired thework of many researchers. New York: MacMillan.Seifert, K. (1978). However, if the infants' needs are not metby caring parents, they will begin to develop a mistrust of the world. Mead, who studied adolescence and sexual behavior of avariety of cultures in primitive societies and published Coming of Age inSamoa in 1928, believed that the nurturing influence of parents determinedthe behavioral outcomes of their children (Winningstad, 2 1, p. This negative perception of children justified parents' harshand brutal treatment of children. 2). W. New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis (J. Certainly, social changes such as the emergenceof the hippie society in the 196 s helped relax American society's rigidconceptions of how adults should behave, thus producing a conducive climatefor nurturing perspectives of child rearing. in Kruppa, 1985, p. A rigidbehavioralist, Watson advised parents to manipulate their children'sbehavior by controlling their children's childhood impulses with tightschedules and limited displays of affection. 1),Locke also advised parents to initiate their children gradually to the goodand positive aspects of life and allow them to participate actively intheir learning process (cited in "Concept of Childhood in History," p. Bysuccessfully sexualizing the male child's innocent play with the penis andsuppressing it, these parents demonstrated the extent of their authority by"offering proofs of love and by threatening punishments which are signs tothe child of loss of love" (Freud, 1964, p. In direct opposition to Mead's nurturing perspective, Watson produceda series of suggestions for parents that were based on behaviorist ideas.Watson's book, Psychological Care of Infant and Child, also published in1928, exerted a tremendous influence on child rearing practices, whichwould endure into the 194 s (Kruppa, 1985). Hillsdale: Erlbaum.Aries, P. (Original work published 194 )From Freud to Social Learning Theory. The Texas Humanist. In Freud's opinion, the abandonment of the Oedipus complex in which amale child forgoes the pleasure of the penis and the incestuous love of themother in exchange for the love of his father was representative of thepower of the parents over the children in the 19th century. H. W. One of these figures was John Locke. Retrieved March 8, 2 2, from http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/courses/SocialLearningNotes.htmlHinnant, C. (1963). C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. However, in thelater eras, children were regarded as beings that were distinguished fromadults. They are alsoundergoing the toilet training phase in which they learn how to controltheir bodily functions. 8-9). (1994). at different periods couldhave undermined the people's interest in child rearing practices("Epidemics in the U.S.-1657-1918," pp. The legacy of scientific motherhood. Retrieved March 8, 2 2, from http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/davisrnclc/myhomepage/legacy.htm?mtbrand=A OL_USDe Mause, L. (1963). (n.d.). Essentially, thephysical contact and affection that were shunned by psychologists duringthe earlier part of the 2 th century were now regarded as integral to theoverall development of children. While authoritativeparents established and enforced firm limits and guidelines, they were alsowarm and responsive to their children's interests. In his collection ofpsychohistories, de Mause (1972) did not find a single instance in whichthe child was not physically battered by their parents before 169 . At the same time,mothers were instructed to refrain from showing affection to their childrenso that they would not be spoiled. Through environmental imprinting, infants(ranging from birds to human beings) are able to survive by forging asocial bond with their immediate caregivers and responding to their firstexperiences. On the other hand, responsive parents are particularly sensitive tothe needs of their children. Therise of the role of the scientists in child rearing did not eliminate theconflicting perspectives. with the Americans' declaration ofindependence in 1776 and the subsequent war. By the end of the Renaissance with the dominance of Puritanism,children were regarded as evil and ignorant beings that needed to be taughtthe correct path and restrained from their natural tendencies to commitsinful acts. For example, in one ofhis seminal studies, Watson and his assistant conditioned Albert, a nine-month-old infant who enjoyed playing with a white rat, to fear the whiterat by striking a hammer on the steel bar behind Albert's head each time hereached for the rat ("From Freud to Social Learning Theory, p. Based on the conditioning workof Pavlov and Thorndike, Watson argued that that any child can beconditioned by their parents to achieve any goals or respond in a specificway to a stipulated stimulus in the environment. Based on this study, Baumrind (1967) identified two dimensions ofparenting: demandingness and responsiveness. Encouraging parents whosupport their children's independent endeavors will further cultivate theirinitiative. The history of child-rearing practices was characterized by radicalvacillations between a positive and nurturing concept and a negative andsuppressive perspective of children. (1998, November). Under siege from periodic epidemics, it was unlikelythat parents and psychologists would be interested in child rearingpractices (p. While the end of the Renaissance began with the brutal oppressionof children, the 197 s celebrated and cultivated the natural child. From the 18th century till the mid-19th century, very little wasdocumented about child rearing practices during era. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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