COLD WAR CULTURE.   Term Paper ID:28863 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: How creation of images of Cold War shaped the culture of its time. Cold War rthetoric in politics & culture. Geopolitical stakes. Propaganda "war." Shifting U.S. priorities.... More...

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Paper Abstract: How creation of images of Cold War shaped the culture of its time. Cold War rthetoric in politics & culture. Geopolitical stakes. Propaganda "war." Shifting U.S. priorities. Paper Introduction: This research examines Cold War culture, in which the issue of public image, or perception, of geopolitical rivals and allies and their adherents surfaced as a recurring theme throughout the last half of the 20th century. The research will consider ways in which commentators and artists, via public statements, the public discourse, and such media as television and film, treated the question of image in that period, with a view toward identifying reasons that perception was so important to so many as well as evaluating the weight that Cold War-context presentation carried in shaping the culture of the time. The generation that witnessed and participated in World War II was shocked to learn afterward that some 12 million people--6 million of them Jews--had been murdered, not collaterally but before and in parallel with the shooting war in Europe, as a matte Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Urey might have added--though he hardly needed to--that what made thesituation so bad was that the two nations in question, erstwhile alliesagainst the Nazis, had since 1945 become increasingly bitter rivals forideological and geopolitical influence. Zubok, V., & Pleshakov, C. Saunders, F.S. Not facing history. 295), especiallywhen West Germany was collapsed into Western democratic Europe. What was not particularly secret about the activities of theseentities was the fact that they were manifestly promulgated as mechanismsof anti-Soviet propaganda. . Meanwhile, Russian supply ships encountering the USquarantine did not attempt to pass it. . The overall geopolitical effect of the missilecrisis was therefore to embarrass the USSR and secure JFK's reputation inNATO as a cold warrior. Few hands appear to have remained clean in the process.And in the aftermath of USSR collapse, it remains difficult to identifywhat US Cold War rhetoric did to defeat the Soviet menace that politicalmanagement ineffectual when not corrupt did not do on its own. According to Hellman's account of being blacklisted (1976), shewas called in 1952 to name names based partly on a World War II propagandascreenplay that FDR has requested she write. .published over 2 prestige magazines, held art exhibitions . And inSaunders's analysis, much of their activity could be traced to Sovietexpertise "in the use of culture as a tool of political persuasion."Saunders continues: [T]he Soviets did much in these early years of the Cold War to establish its central paradigm as a cultural one. . 478). New York: AlexisGregory/Helvetica Press. WhereverCold War issue fronts emerged, the phrase functioned as a proxy for andreferent of the status of Soviet-American relations and for a whole rangeof similarly situated dyads: communism and capitalism, East and West, thefree world and the iron curtain countries, NATO and the Warsaw Pact, etc.Cold War encounters in all arenas of popular and political culture werehigh-stakes affairs because of evidence that competing ideologies andworldviews were being enacted by postwar geopolitics. One hell of a gamble: The secret historyof the Cuban missile crisis. In such an environment, the readiness would be all, wherereadiness = a posture of credibility and beneficence. (196 ). New York: Schocken Books. No one had to be a nuclear scientist to understand that kind oflanguage. intended to prevent what was felt to be theconspiratorial imperialist project of state communism from spreadingwestward beyond the satellite states of the USSR. . (1999). The Cuban missile crisis vividly illustrated that public posture andpresentation were not merely at the core of Cold War activity but were thevery core. One mechanism for manipulating perceptions is to make use of expertisein that arena. . L. In1949, the Soviet Union announced that it had successfully tested its ownatomic bomb. . 43). Adherents of each worldview relied on ahost of rhetorical and poetic strategies, configured as diplomacy,propaganda, argument, ideology, and very often art. E. 51), thus, as RD said, imperiling the fate of thecivil rights movement. 115).An internal intelligence memorandum sent in 1945 to "Wild Bill" Donovan,head of the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS), precursor of the CIA,contained analysis of future encounters between the US and USSR. When the Western postwar economic recoverysucceeded via the Marshall Plan, Stalin "over-reacted to Western hostiledesigns as he perceived them" (Zubok & Plashakov, 1989, p. Prevots (1999) cites the Eisenhower administration's sponsorshipcultural exchange programs emphasizing the dance, between American andSoviet touring dance companies, a program that led to the founding of theNational Endowment for the arts. (1974). (2 , May). Ten film writers and directors (the"Hollywood Ten") were jailed for contempt of Congress for up to a year eachduring 195 for refusing to "name names" of others who they thought or knewto be communists and so obliterate the influence of Communists in themotion picture industry. organizedhigh-profile international conferences, and rewarded musicians and artistswith prizes and public performances" (Saunders, 1999, pp. The Secretary of State, Dean Rusk,was quoted as saying: "We were eyeball to eyeball, and the other fellowjust blinked" (Fursenko & Naftali, 1998). Legvold, R. The rest isCold War history: Within a few years, hundreds of other people within the film industry were dismissed and blacklisted. Fail-Safe. (1999). According to postcommunistRussian analysis, Stalin's geopolitical and domestic paranoia against Anglo-American nuclear capability was set beside ideological confidence in thecollapse of the capitalist forces that would rebuild Europe (Zubok &Plashakov, 1989, pp. The term had become an artifact ofpopular imagination in a way that might be expected in the 2 th century,through state-of-the-art mass media. One hell of a gamble: Khrushchev,Castro, and Kennedy, 1958-1964. Big Brother and theHolding Company. In1964, some two years after the end of the Cuban missile crisis, twoHollywood films articulated a similar Cold War critique, though in verydifferent ways. However, it does appear to have kept herfrom a contempt citation. Lexington, Mass.: Heath. (1998). In oneletter to JFK at the time, Khrushchev agreed to withdraw from Cuba, sayingthat Russia had no wish to "doom" the world to thermonuclear war. CD-ROM. Lane, M., & Gregory, D. Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia2 . Fulbright, J.W. immediately made the term a commonplace ofthe American language" (Goldman, 196 , p. Goldman, E.F. Indeed, the White House"leaked" to the press that advocacy of the Jupiter deal was led by JFK's UNambassador and erstwhile rival for the Democratic presidential nomination,Adlai Stevenson; that method of concealing JFK's own agreement withKhrushchev can be interpreted as a safe political move in light of thepublic posture of the USSR. CCF funded the establishment of such journals asPartisan Review, Sewanee Review, Encounter. 27-44. Dr. Strangelove or:How I learned to stop worrying and love the bomb. Blacklist (Entertainment Industry). Boosting the careers and work of the CCF's intellectual-artisticclientele appears to have had a twofold aim: to present them to arecovering Europe as exponents of American cultural life and intellectualfreedom, and (related to the first) to thereby function as proof of themoral and ideological superiority of Western culture. Parting the curtain: Propaganda, culture, and thecold war, 1945-1961. In 195 an organization called American Business Consultants . If such utterances from the perspective of AD 2 have about them anantique quality, in 1947 they appear to have been as central togeopolitical discourse as, phrases such as, say, "great Satan" or"legislative coup." In 1946, Winston Churchill's metaphor for the postwarinstallation of Soviet-sponsored satellite governments in countries ofeastern Europe--iron curtain--had passed into common parlance, it was notso considered. Merrill (Eds.). 33). Boson: Wesleyan University Press of New England. 6 ). The plot of Strangelove is thatone General Jack D. The context for the emergence of a culture of pervaded by shock,despair, and fear was the Cold War. The blacklist lasted until the 196 s, destroying hundreds of careers (Blacklist, 1999). an enthymeme [reduction of an idea to a logicalconclusion by means of a reasoning process], and this is, in general, themost effective of the modes of persuasion" (Aristotle, 1984, p. Bemporad, J. pressures" and by the US"in our eagerness to avoid at all costs the tragedy of open war" (Saunders,1999, p. Thus persuasion per se is "a sort ofdemonstration . Indeed, there was a view that"the Red surge represented, in a viciously distorted way, the legitimateaspirations of millions for independence, social reform, and self-respect"(Goldman, 196 , p. 7). 11 ). Lumet, S., Director. Thelanguage of these rejections was ideological, referring to "war-mongeringcapitalist piracy" or "barbarous American imperialism" (Goldman, 196 , pp.58). Hixson (1997) analyzes such incidents as the Red Scares of the195 s (via highly public congressional hearings by HUAC and Sen. They showed no faith that America could solve the problem alone, and sought to bolster the American position by strong support of the United Nations and by general coalition diplomacy (Goldman, 196 , p. . The 1949conviction of State Department official Alger Hiss for aiding the communistconspiracy came out of the same political environment that emerged startingin 1947 when the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) held aseries of public hearings meant to ferret out communist influence intelevision and motion pictures. Cold War rhetoric surfaced in politics and culture alike. . Between 195 and 1967, when theCCF-CIA connection was exposed, CCF "had offices in 35 countries . William Fulbright, originally a proponent of US intervention in Vietnam,changed his mind based on what he saw as a Cold War skewing of Americanpriorities: Of all the changes in American life wrought by the cold war, the most important . Ripper unilaterally orders a first strike on Moscow,for reasons that (to him) make perfect sense. Washington Monthly, 32, 52. Sen.J. New York: The New Press. War-room action also dominates Dr. Strangelove or: How ILearned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb, which identifies Cold Warstrands of thought, but by way of satire. In Fail-Safe, a film adaptation of a novel, failure oftechnology results in detonation of a US nuclear bomb in Moscow and aRussian bomb in New York City; most of the action takes place in US andUSSR war rooms. Americans who are resorting to violenceand the Narodniki--children of the mid-eighteenth century Russianaristocracy who murdered Czar Alexander II" (p. Palo Alto: Ramparts Press. an unofficial blacklist. . Also on the record, however, is compelling evidencethat co-optation or manipulation of cultural artifacts elaborated in ColdWar vocabulary that were a persistent feature of US government activityboth inside and outside the country visited consequences on Americanculture and certain of its icons that were far from being anticipated. Elusive balance: Power and perceptions duringthe cold war. (1993). A. Acceptance speech. 4th ed. North Star, as the film wascalled, portrayed gallant Russian peasants (and Allies) resisting the Naziinvasion. The science of atomic weaponry, which had obliterated twocities in two dark instants, now enabled contemplation of mass obliterationof the whole of human experience--especially as, over the succeedingdecades, more nations pursued proprietary development of atomic weapons. Their Hollywood studios fired them. As Fursenko and Naftali explain, however, manipulation of perceptionsduring negotiations on the crisis appears to have been decisive. In such anenvironment, images of East and West, of communist and capitalist, had tobe sharply drawn and managed so that the case for one worldview or theother could be persuasively made. One target of a Senate investigation was playwright Lillian Hellman,an exact contemporary of such CCF clients as Mary McCarthy and theTrillings. Implicit in the Ripper speech of the film is a Cold Warposture that connects anticommunism to ultramasculine bearing, which isconsistent with the atmosphere of gamesmanship that is on the record of theCuban missile crisis. Before that could happen, Moscow's newsagency publicly announced withdrawal of the missiles from Cuba. The rivalry had intensified by1951, when in a speech accepting the Nobel Prize for Literature, novelistWilliam Faulkner articulated the view that the central fact of modern lifewas death and that the fact was now so commonplace that it had pushed outhuman-scale concerns as the subject for art: Our tragedy today is a general and universal physical fear so long sustained by now that we can even bear it. Officially, this proposal was neitheraccepted nor rejected by the committee, and it did not prevent Hellman frombeing blacklisted in Hollywood. Faulkner, W. Produced by S. Thus, we work ourselves into a fearful state of alarm over every incident on the Berlin access routes while blandly ignoring the increase of crime and violence in our great cities; we regard ourselves as gravely threatened by the rantings of Cuban demagogue while taking little notice of the social disintegration caused by chronic unemployment (Fulbright, 1964, p. 24-25)Aristotelian analysis of rhetoric helps explain why perception, whether ofideas or personalities, so much mattered in Cold War culture. They were meant to tell America's story. As hostile to Soviet intentions as the US was,so was the Soviet Union toward US intentions. . Weissman, S. 115). (1968). During the Vietnam War era, which coincided roughly with the era ofcivil rights advocacy, the culture was marked by mass student protestsagainst racial discrimination, the military draft, and Americaninvolvement. . Martin's Pres. The speech was cited by Walter Lippmann, syndicated politicalcolumnist, and "the public . Baruch, who in 1946-47 was the US representative on the newlyformed United Nations Atomic Energy Commission, where he had witnessedmultiple Soviet rejections of international control of atomic energy. CIA/CCF also appearsto have had a latent domestic propagandistic purpose--to attract andnurture the anticommunism of the American left-wing intelligentsia, whichbefore World War II had viewed "democratic socialism" as a "bulwark againsttotalitarianism" but which had become disillusioned by the totalitariandescent of the Soviet system. CCF's activities entailed either conscious or unwitting cooperationfrom such American and Anglo-American artists and authors as these: AaronCopland, Leontyne Price, Stephen Spender, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., BertrandRussell, Isaiah Berlin, Mary McCarthy, Saul Bellow, Jackson Pollock,Gertrude Stein, Robert Lowell, Irving Kristol, Lionel Trilling, DianaTrilling--the list goes on and on (Saunders, 1999). Baruch, Bernard Mannes. . Dance for export: Cultural diplomacy and the coldwar. New York: Vintage. One review of Saunders's bookremarks that from 195 onward, through its Congress for Cultural Freedom,the CIA functioned as a de facto American "secret ministry of culture"(Neufville, 2 ). [E]ntertainers who had once been in or associated with the Communist Party felt enormous pressure to become "friendly" witnesses and name people who had Communist connections. In thesubsequent message, Khrushchev demanded removal of the Jupiters from Turkeyin exchange for dismantling USSR missiles in Cuba. Now there is a gulf between enactmentof persuasion and notice taken of how the persuasion was accomplished. Roberts (Trans.). 28-3 ). The Allied objective of defeating fascism that shifted into the West'sobjective of defeating communism appears also to have transfigured into thegoal of managing global and domestic politics. (1994, March-April). New York: Modern Library. S. Neufville, R.D. New York: Bantam Books. (1933-1999). Saunders's account of how the US intelligence apparatus co-opted and/or controlled dissemination of the American position in the ColdWar, by way of promotion of the careers of selected artists and men andwomen of letters, illustrates the point. (Kubrick & Southern, 1964).One thing leads to another, and the film ends with a graphic of globalthermonuclear war. Dawidowicz, L. Hodgson, G. . 18).By no means did the US government attempt to conceal manifest sponsorshipof all cultural exports with a view toward enhancing the American publicimage. New York: St. (1964). Crucial decade and after: America, 1945-196 . Review, Elusive Balance: Power andPerceptions During the Cold War. An overt act was felt to require overt American response, and USforces were mobilized for invasion. Scientific extermination of 6 million Jews and 6 millionGentiles, more or less, was on the historical record, which meant that theprospect of state-sponsored mass murder could not only be contemplated butalso implemented. Scoundrel time. The USSR'saction could be perceived as an eleventh-hour response to US mobilizationafter Cuba's downing of the US plane, and it enabled JFK to conceal thattrading Jupiters for Cuban missiles had been on the table, knowledge thatwould have destroyed US credibility with NATO. (1997, October 24). MajorProblems in American Foreign Relations, Vol. Concept of man after Auschwitz. (1971). Corbett (Ed.). They promoted co-existence, with its implication that Communism would be powerful for an indefinite period. Produced by M.E. There is only the question: When will I be blown up? A similar critique of Cold War thinking was voiced by civil rightsleader Martin Luther King, Jr., by April 1967: whereupon the Reader'sDigest ran an article the explained that Dr. King had "involved himself in'a conflict where the United States is in direct combat with Communism'"(Lane & Gregory, 1977, p. Rhetoric. (1964). Foreign Affairs, 73, 162. Hellman, L. . In other words, US cultural intelligencewanted to project a specific idea of America into the battle for men'sminds, but it did not want anybody to find its fingerprints on theprojection. New York: Norton. Seattle: Microsoft Corporation. There are no longer problems of the spirit. 22).Aristotle continues: It is not true, as some writers assume in their treatises on rhetoric, that the personal goodness revealed by the speaker contributes nothing to his power of persuasion; on the contrary, his character may almost be called the most effective means of persuasion he possesses (Aristotle, 1984, pp. (1989). 22). Inthat gulf are contained any of a variety of techniques employed byrhetoricians and their auditors. . G.Paterson & D. 293-4). Measures of Cold War success came in terms of cultural, propagandavictories. Ifthe Holocaust had been shocking, what was the other? Out of theWhirlwind. Urey "managed tophrase what so many Americans were feeling" at the news when he commentedat the time: "There is only one thing worse than one nation having theatomic bomb--that's two nations having it" (Goldman, 196 , p. . However, at the same time, through "back channels" ofcommunication, JFK agreed in principle to withdrawing the Jupiters as aquid pro quo for USSR action. has been the massive diversion of energy an resources from the creative pursuits of civilized society to the conduct of a costly and interminable struggle for world power. . (1964). because man has used hismost precious knowledge, his reason, science, and technology, theachievements of the scientific spirit, for genocide, for mass murder"(Bemporad, 1968, p. 284-96. (1995, March 6). In 1947, at a speech in Columbia, S.C., Baruch said thefollowing: "Let us not be deceived--today we are in the midst of a coldwar. 7-8. Code name "Zorro": The murder of MartinLuther King, Jr. . . E. Old myths and new realities. Seattle: Microsoft Corporation. Lacking the economic power of the United States and, above all, still without a nuclear capability, Stalin's regime concentrated on winning "the battle for men's minds." America, despite a massive marshalling of the arts in the New Deal period, was a virgin in the practice of international Kulturkampf (Saunders, 1999, p. (1997). . New York: Knopf. Another decisive feature of World War II was US use of the atomic bombin Japan in 1945, which as President Truman said in announcing the event,had "harness[ed] the basic power of the universe" (Goldman, 196 , p. The generation that witnessed and participated in World War II wasshocked to learn afterward that some 12 million people--6 million of themJews--had been murdered, not collaterally but before and in parallel withthe shooting war in Europe, as a matter of public policy and with fullcommitment of the apparatus of state (Dawidowicz, 1975). . W.R. Crying wolf at Watergate. War against the Jews. T. JosephMcCarthy's committee); the 1957 "kitchen debate" between Khruschev andNixon, in which each damned the other's politics and culture with faintpraise; U-2 spy plane incident of 196 , which brought pilot Francis GaryPowers to trial in Moscow; the Bay of Pigs incident of 1961, a disastrousinvasion of Cuba with a view toward ousting Castro from power, a planconceived in the Eisenhower administration and carried out in the newKennedy administration. Khrushchev's placement of seven offensive and defensive nuclearmissiles in Cuba was an overt assertion of and therefore creation of heperception of aggressive power against the US and (at the time) aneffective counter to vast US superiority in the arms race inasmuch as USdefensive weapons were positioned to fire eastward and over the North Pole.However, that action was not qualitatively different from US placement ofmissiles in Turkey, bordering the USSR, earlier in 1962, "precisely inorder to emphasize the American commitment to NATO" (Hodgson, 1997, p. Now the symbolic effect of these Jupiter missiles, Khrushchevprivately demanded Kennedy dismantle while publicly backing down in theface of the US quarantine, concealed one salient fact: that they weremilitarily obsolete. . The Cuban missile crisis appears to have exerted a seminal influenceon Cold War cultural elaborations, though in perhaps unintended ways. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. (1984). Goldman's descriptionof 1949 as the year of shocks illustrates the dynamic at work: In additionto Russia's atomic bomb were the 1949 revolution that installed the ChineseCommunist Party in government in mainland China; North Korea's invasion ofSouth Korea; and elaboration of containment, the name given to Americanforeign policy whereby the U.S. . (1975). This research examines Cold War culture, in which the issue of publicimage, or perception, of geopolitical rivals and allies and their adherentssurfaced as a recurring theme throughout the last half of the 2 th century.The research will consider ways in which commentators and artists, viapublic statements, the public discourse, and such media as television andfilm, treated the question of image in that period, with a view towardidentifying reasons that perception was so important to so many as well asevaluating the weight that Cold War-context presentation carried in shapingthe culture of the time. 1 ). One view is that the Cold War was allabout power, "an admittedly elusive concept that plays a critical role inthe abstractions of the scholar and an equally salient one, albeit lessintellectual, in the fears and hopes of the policymaker" (Legvold, citingWohlforth, 1994, p. P. American Nobel Prize physicist Harold C. Works Cited Aristotle. It remains toexplore how Cold War consciousness either affected or was elaborated in theimages of popular culture and in the enactment and implementation ofrelevant public policy. Microsoft EncartaEncyclopedia 2 . (Faulkner, 1973, p. Kubrick. Prevots, N. (1976). Review: The Cultural Cold War: The CIA andthe World of Arts and Letters. That screenplay was used to explain Hellman as a communistsympathizer. Aristotle formulates the discipline of rhetoric, at its most basic, as"the faculty of observing in any given case the available means ofpersuasion" (Aristotle, 1984, p. The influence of CIA sponsorship on the content of American lettersand public discourse can be discerned in the fact that many CCF clientsfound a voice in a variety of controversial political situations, bothforeign and domestic, over the course of the last half of the 2 th century.More than this, their voices were heard in distinctively Cold War terms. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Wohlforth, W.C. Kubrick, S., & Southern, T., Screenwriters. I can no longer sit back and allow Communist infiltration, Communist indoctrination, Communist subversion, and the international Communist conspiracy to sap and impurify all of our precious bodily fluids! 4). In contextof the invention of nuclear capability, there would be "a shift in thebalance between 'peaceful' and 'warlike' methods of exerting internationalpressure" that would be used by both sides--by the Soviets in efforts to"propagandize, subvert, sabotage and exert . New Statesman, 126, 43-4. (1999). Beginning in 1947 and well into the 195 s, preservation of the imageof US steadfastness in the face of a Soviet threat was enacted as a seriesof congressional investigations into what was said to be communistinfluence in American government as well as arts and letters. It must also be noted that Cold War antagonismsdid not flow only one way. It was first voiced in a speech byBernard M. Hixson, W. [C]ontainers relied principally on the long-range effects of economic aid to non-Communist countries, not on the more direct method of arming the free world and certainly not on any hope of destroying Communism by war. published Red Channels, the Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Television, a list of the names and supposed Communist ties of 151 entertainers . . . In consequence,there arose "a temper of absolute despair . . . II: Since 1914. The Rhetoric and Poetics of Aristotle. 162). Institutionalcooperation was also enlisted, with various foundations and organizationsfunctioning at least in part as CIA fronts, via CCF: New York'sMetropolitan Opera, the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, the ModernLanguage Association, etc. The stakes of the Cold War were nothing less than the globalgeopolitical structure, played for against the backdrop of what the Trumanadministration saw as a "long-running, world-wide social revolution" thatWorld War II had not adequately resolved. Lipstadt, D. Younstein.Warner Bros. Stalin's inexorable aggression. One complication of this situation was thatCuban antiaircraft shot down an American reconnaissance plane, killing thepilot. The point of conducting a propaganda war, from both the Soviet and USperspectives, appears to have been to shore up theoretical or psychologicalsupport for whatever exercises of political options or power might unfoldin the vicissitudes of geopolitics. (1977). J. NewYork: Vintage. Nevertheless, what until 1967 was secretabout the American response to Soviet Kulturkampf configured as the CCF wasits CIA connection, and until very recently the extraordinary depth andtightness of that connection. Fursenko, A., & Naftali, T. Cold War rhetoric was never far from the center of thins. . Friedlander (Ed.). 32-3), to articulate a lineof thought that would publicly answer critics of US policy, chiefly bydrawing "parallels between . H. Seizing the discourse andformulating it in Cold War terms were important elements of thetransfiguration. 24). In 197 , amid protests over US invasion of Cambodia,the Nixon White House called on Irving Kristol, described as a veteran ofthe CIA's campaign to mobilize an earlier generation of intellectuals intothe covertly funded CCF" (Weissman, 1974, pp. US crisis strategistsdecided to pretend the subsequent message had not arrived and to accept thefirst offer. Cultural cold war: The CIA and the world of artsand letters. Hellman was able to read into the record a letter to thecommittee offering to tell everything about her own politics but decliningto "make trouble" for others. New Republic 26-27. Nobel Prize Library: WilliamFaulkner, Eugene O'Neill, John Steinbeck. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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