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Essay Subject: Analysis of changing role of President as defined in Constitution to growing increase in executive powers. Franklin D. Roosevelt's transformation of Presidency.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Analysis of changing role of President as defined in Constitution to growing increase in executive powers. Franklin D. Roosevelt's transformation of Presidency. Paper Introduction: The President of the United States is often described as “the most powerful man on earth” or “the leader of the free world,” yet his office is an 18th century invention still bound by rules and conventions that date back more than 100 years. The modern status of the U.S. President reflects the office’s transformation from a somewhat ceremonial post to a much more substantive role. This paper will examine the Presidency and explore whether the office has successfully evolved as the U.S. enters the 21st century. After gaining independence from Britain in 1783, the 13 former colonies organized their national government based on the Articles of Confederation, which proved to be an abject failure as the constitution. The Articles of Confederation failed in large part because they did not include any executive power (not surpr Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. The framers had clearly intended foreign policy to be mostlyin the domain of Congress (especially the Senate), thought his had been anongoing power struggle between the executive and legislativebranches.[xxiii] Much like Lincoln, however, FDR saw the need to actwithout Congress' approval. [xxv]Robert Dallek, Hail to the Chief: The Making and Unmaking ofAmerican Presidents (New York: Hyperion, 1996), 126. Kelly, Winfred A. State governments weremuch more important. Today's President is clearly not the executive envisioned by many ofthe framers, though this is probably what Hamilton and a few others had inmind. Norton &Company, 1983), 3 -3 2. At that time,the public expected President Theodore Roosevelt to provide affirmativeleadership to correct the abuses of the era. Article II, Section 3 reveals the framers' true intent,declaring that "he shall receive ambassadors and other public Ministers."In other words, they viewed the post as somewhat ceremonial, similar to theBritish monarchy today. [xxi]Ibid., 72. Genovese, The Paradoxes of theAmerican Presidency (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 7 -71. Roosevelt not only did that,he used the "bully pulpit" of his office to influence matters that he couldnot directly change.[xx] The national government created an income tax in 1916 to fund itsincreasing burdens, and in 1917, it sent 2 million soldiers to Europe tofight a war. The greater role of the federal governmentrequired a greater role for the President because he is theoretically freeof provincial interests, as Hamilton had argued. The rest of Article II, Section 1 detailsthe mechanism for electing the President, the qualifications for the job,and the oath, among other matters.[iv] Article II, Section 2 details the President's powers. Regardless, most would probably approve. After gaining independence from Britain in 1783, the 13 formercolonies organized their national government based on the Articles ofConfederation, which proved to be an abject failure as the constitution.The Articles of Confederation failed in large part because they did notinclude any executive power (not surprising, considering the colonies'experience with King George III) and because they conferred no real powerupon the legislature. The President justified his actions toCongress based on the "war power," which required him to act withoutauthorization when the U.S. Over time, more and more government posts became appointedrather than civil service, leaving today's Presidents with the gargantuantask of hiring thousands of people in the months after they areelected.[xiv] The increasing power of political parties changed the Presidency, butthat change had no impact on most Americans. The Paradoxes of the American Presidency. The President needed a way toreward those who helped him get the job. The need to act fast in adangerous world has led to an expansion of the President's war power. In today's world, the nation needs to speak with one voice and itneeds to be able to react rapidly. [vi]Ketcham, 8. BibliographyCronin, Thomas E., and Genovese, Michael A. Johnson resisted the Reconstruction plans of the so-called "RadicalRepublicans" in Congress, believed them to be punitive. At the same time, the President maintains his role as the nation'sleader. New York: Harper & Row, 1987).----------------------- [i]Ralph Ketcham, Presidents Above Party: The First AmericanPresidency, 1789-1829 (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of NorthCarolina Press, 1984), 6-7. Congress ultimatelyapproved Lincoln's actions, though they disagreed on the Constitutionaljustification.[xvii] Lincoln exercised broad powers throughout his four-plus years inoffice, and generally enjoyed overwhelming support among Northerners and inCongress. Ultimately theysettled on a sole executive and a broad statement in Article II, Section 1of the Constitution ("the executive power shall be vested in a President ofthe United States of America"). All of these developments led up to the 1932 election ofFranklin Delano Roosevelt, who transformed the Presidency more than anyonebefore or since. [x]Ibid. Presidents Above Party: The First American Presidency, 1789-1829. [xvi]Alfred H. The framers conferred upon the President the power to maketreaties with foreign governments, subject to the two-thirds approval ofthe Senate. New York: W.W. Still, they left most of the Presidencyundefined.[v] That is where George Washington comes in. World War II began in 1939, and by 194 ,Britain stood alone against German aggression. The Modern Presidency: From Roosevelt to Reagan. [xviii]Ibid., 345-354. [iv]Ketcham, 7-8. Jefferson argued that the executive branch only had those powers thatwere enumerated in the Constitution. [iii]Ibid. .") and his role as Commander in Chief, Lincoln ordered animmediate blockade of Southern ports, called up troops, pledged thegovernment's credit for $25 million, and ordered the unlawful detention ofsecessionists in border states. Roosevelt won election during the Great Depression, whichstarted in 1929. Hope replaced despair thanks to FDR's leadership, evenif his policies did not completely succeed in lifting the nation out of theDepression.[xxii] Another crisis, World War II, would help FDR further transform thePresidency. The creation of a party apparatus geared towards electing thePresident changed American politics forever. Levy, Original Intent and the Framers' Constitution(New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988), 32. Hail to the Chief: The Making and Unmaking of the American Presidents. FDR proposed legislation, then lobbied Congressfor approval. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1988.Shaw, Malcolm (ed.). Hedelivered "fireside chats," inviting the nation to join him around thehearth every week. He ultimatelyfaced impeachment, and though he won acquittal, he left office indisgrace.[xviii] Ulysses S. Constitution sought toremedy those defects by erecting a national government with definedauthority. President reflectsthe office's transformation from a somewhat ceremonial post to a much moresubstantive role. Harbison, and Herman Belz, TheAmerican Constitution: Its Origins and Development (New York: W.W. Theframers divided Congress into two bodies (the Senate and the House ofRepresentatives) with different terms (six years for the Senate and twoyears for the House) and different constituencies. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1984.Levy, Leonard W. Both left the Washington Administration afterhis first term, but they remained influential. Five weeks later, the shooting started, and Lincoln had to act fastto ready the North to fight and to keep border states in the fold. . [xx]Cronin and Genovese, 71. John Adams, Washington's VicePresident, succeeded him after winning the 1796 election.[xi] Subsequent Presidents would follow Washington's example almost exactlyuntil 1829, and to a lesser degree until the Civil War started in 1861.Washington's successors employed "disinterested leadership," staying abovethe fray and rarely offering policy initiatives. He stepped aside after two terms, setting a precedent thatwould last until the 2 th century. Indeed, that iswhy Congress reacts to the President, rather than the other way around.The power between the branches may ebb and flow (such as after Nixon'sresignation, when the House and Senate enjoyed greater influence), but therules have changed to the point that Congress is merely trying to hang onto what it has. Thus, the Presidentialappointment power began to expand so the new chief executive could rewardhis followers. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.Dallek, Robert. [vii]Ketcham, 92. "The[f]ramers believed that Congress would predominate over the President tosuch an extent that the executive, which was naturally weak in a republicangovernment, had to be 'fortified.'"[ii] This fortification amounted to a series of limits on Congress. to victory in WorldWar II, which firmly ensconced foreign affairs in the executivebranch.[xxiv] That is another example of the evolution of Presidential power inresponse to specific events. He proceeded to do exactly that, setting the outlineof the Presidency for generations to come. [ii]Leonard W. Andrew Jackson actually won the popular vote, but Adams won thejob by a vote in the House of Representatives. Ratherthan dither over Constitutional niceties, Lincoln acted without regard forwhether had the authority to do so. Moreover, they had learned from the states that a governmentsolely comprised of a legislature proved unworkable. Hamilton envisioned theexecutive as the only member of government who represented the people as awhole, and "thus much more capable than a legislative body of resisting theinfluence of faction and special interests."[ix] Washington, staying true to his beliefs, sided with Hamilton's view ofa strong national government that not only regulated society but alsoprovided for the general welfare. Neither of those capabilities ispossible in a deliberative body like Congress. Roosevelt charged that the Hoover Administration had donelittle to help people, and promised active leadership to end the economicsuffering.[xxi] Roosevelt offered a new model for the President, who traditionally hadbeen aloof from Congress. Jackson charged that Adamshad cut deals with two prominent Southern politicians in exchange forcabinet posts. The framers of the U.S. The office has come to mean all things to allpeople because the President is the face of the national government.[xxv]He is the one person who can speak directly to the public, as opposed to aSenator who will only rate an audience in his home state. Nonetheless, they stillviewed the legislative body (Congress) as the most powerful. [xix]Ibid., 373-74. faced a grave threat. Over the objections ofCongress, FDR managed to aid the British war effort by using "executiveagreements" rather than treaties (which required Senate approval) andhidden agreements. He governed as thebenevolent leader, staying above the fray and avoiding even the hint ofpartisanship.[vii] Ultimately, maintaining that aloofness proved impossible because ofdisputes among his cabinet members, specifically Secretary of TreasuryAlexander Hamilton (a Federalist) and Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson(a Democratic-Republican). [xxii]Ibid. Their ambiguity indelineating the "executive power" has allowed the office to adapt with thetimes. FDR would go on to lead the U.S. Washington, however, recognized that the nation wouldnot benefit from such an aggrandizement of power, even in his benevolenthands because he would be creating a dangerous precedent for more despoticsuccessors. During Washington's secondterm (1793-97), he became embroiled in their dispute about the proper roleof government. In response, Washington lashed out against the poison of "partyspirit" at his Farewell Address.[x] Nonetheless, Washington remained hugely popular, and indeed could havesought a third term in 1796-or even sought the job permanently, as a sortof American king. [xxiv]Malcolm Shaw (ed.), The Modern Presidency: From Roosevelt toReagan (New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 2 7. The American people look to the President for direction, and notjust during times of crisis. The American Constitution: Its Origins and Development. Even Jefferson seemed to adopt Hamilton's view of executivepowers when the exigencies of the office dictated such action (i.e., theLouisiana Purchase).[xii] The President began to change after the election of John Quincy Adamsin 1824. Norton & Company, 1983.Ketcham, Ralph. The leader of Americanforces during the Revolutionary War enjoyed overwhelming support among theframers and the population as a whole, not only for his military exploitsbut also for his nonpartisanship and ability to stay above the fray. This paper will examine the Presidency and explorewhether the office has successfully evolved as the U.S. [v]Ketcham, 7-8. Original Intent and the Framers' Constitution. For example, during theIndustrial Revolution, the federal government intervened by creatingnational labor standards to prevent the use of child labor. He greatly expanded the power of his office and greatly enhancedthe concept of the President as the nation's leader. [ix]Ibid., 197. Thus, though he supported the conceptof the national government adopting initiatives to improve the generalwelfare, Jefferson argued that such policies were prohibited absent aConstitutional amendment.[viii] On the other hand, Hamilton argued thatthe President could do anything not specifically prohibited by theConstitution, and based on that authority, the national government couldset up a bank or undertake public works projects. [xii]Ibid., 1 7-1 9. New York: Hyperion, 1996.Kelly, Alfred H., and Harbison, Winfred A., and Belz, Herman. They took theirceremonial role very seriously, and largely left the business of governmentto Congress. By the end of the 19th century, political scientistscomplained that the framers' ideal of government based on checks andbalances was a mirage because Congress really ran the show.[xix] Presidential power only began to increase as the federal government'srole in the lives of most Americans increased. [viii]Ibid., 1 7. [xi]Ibid., 92-93. If Congress proved reticent, he solicited public support. He welcomed the ceremonialrole, believing that it helped enhance the role of the Presidency inleading the nation and not just the government. With the help of New York politician Martin Van Buren, theybegan building a party organization with the sole intent of defeating Adamsin 1828.[xiii] Jackson and the Whig Party accomplished that goal, winning the 1828election and gaining re-election in 1832 (Van Buren followed Jackson in1836). In addition, theexecutive and legislative branches would operate in dissimilarfashion.[iii] The framers long debated the particulars of the executive branch.They considered a plural executive, the election of the President byCongress or state legislatures, and the absolute veto. [xiv]Ibid., 142-143. Cronin and Michael A. "Onlythe widespread willingness to entrust one man, General Washington, withexecutive power (itself an unrepublican sentiment, of course) allowed thedelegates to fashion and then the people to accept such an untestedpresidential office."[vi] Thus, when Washington became President in 1789, he assumed an officethat had a blank slate accompanied by the framers' expectations that hewould define the job. An executive branchwould have to be included in the new government.[i] To achieve their goal of conferring power while also limiting it, theframers created a system of checks and balances among three branches ofgovernment (legislative, executive, and judicial). Grant (1869-1877) then served two scandal-ridden terms thatonly helped Congress regain his pre-eminent position in the nationalgovernment. enters the 21stcentury. [xxiii]Levy, 3 -53. He is theCommander in Chief of the nation's military forces, which had largelydisbanded after the Revolutionary War, turning defense functions over tostate militias. [xiii]Ibid., 137. By the time he tookoffice on March 4, 1861, he presided over a divided nation on the brink ofwar. The President of the United States is often described as "the mostpowerful man on earth" or "the leader of the free world," yet his office isan 18th century invention still bound by rules and conventions that dateback more than 1 years. The national government hadlittle or no effect on the lives of most citizens. The modern status of the U.S. Theneed to speak with one voice internationally has led to the Presidentassuming almost total control of American foreign affairs. Some historians call this era"Lincoln's Constitutional Dictatorship."[xvi] Resting on his oath of office ("preserve, protect, and defend theConstitution. [xv]Thomas E. Much of thatevaporated during the Presidency of Lincoln's successors, particularlyAndrew Johnson, who took office after Lincoln's assassination in April1865. Presidents were expected to preside overadministrative functions and otherwise stay out of the way. "Publicexpectations of the president were not geared towards greatness, but towardefficiency in those limited responsibilities assigned to thepresidency."[xv] The failings of this model became apparent when Southern states beganseceding after Abraham Lincoln's election in 186 . Opponents accused him of abandoning hisrole as the leader of the nation to instead become a tool of the FederalistParty. [xvii]Ibid., 3 1-3 2. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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