Jawaharlal Nehru   Term Paper ID:27446 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Biographical review of one of India's founding fathers, J. Nehru. Discusses his early years, but focuses on his rise to power in post-war India & his reign as president.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Biographical review of one of India's founding fathers, J. Nehru. Discusses his early years, but focuses on his rise to power in post-war India & his reign as president. Paper Introduction: Jawaharlal Nehru Introduction In thinking about the modern history of India, two names stand out, that of Gandhi and that of Nehru. Most people focus on Mahatma Gandhi, while Indira Gandhi created considerable controversy during her time in political power. Jawaharlal Nehru is the bridging figure between these two and an important influence on India in his own right. Background on Nehru Jawaharlal Nehru spanned the decades during which India sought its independence and gained freedom after World War II. Born in 1889, Nehru actually died in office in May of 1964. He was the predominant political figure in India during the period between Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Ultimately, Nehru is a flawed figure, as are all human beings, but onethat commands a great deal of admiration and respect. Nehru, who had beenelected president of the Congress, advocated socialism in his presidentialaddress. He also had clear ideas about how India needed toproceed on the course of nation-building and economic development, althoughhe was only partially successful in these areas. Both Gandhi and Nehru attracted the hostility, among their owncountrymen, that would eventually lead to their deaths. Essentially, the Congress was both a politicalparty and a nascent ruling body for India. It was a nationalist movement that hadthe aim of improving the position of India within the British empire,including some degree of self-rule. Nehru became increasingly involved in politics, although never withoutreserve. He alsoencouraged the allocation of resources to heavy industries and cottageindustries both (Paul, 1995). This includesJawaharlal, who expressed himself as he pleased when Indians fought backwith the English or Eurasians who snubbed them or treated them badly.Jawaharlal indicated that he began to resent the presence and behavior ofthese foreign rulers, although he did not feel hostility toward individualEnglish citizens, like his governess (Norman, 1965A). The First Plan actually increasednational income by 18 percent (Ghose, 1975). Again, he seems to have served as a bridge from thepast to India's future. Even though he was a leader of the masses, and quitepopular with them, he was not a naturally democratic person. Karaka, D.F. (1996). Jawaharlal NehruIntroduction In thinking about the modern history of India, two names stand out,that of Gandhi and that of Nehru. Nehru himself stated at one point that: "I ama typical bourgeois, brought up in bourgeois surroundings with all theearly prejudice that this training has given me" (Ghose, 1975, 337). Nehru wasactually a member of a family that was among the most Anglicized in all ofIndia. Bilgrami, A. This was not acceptable to many of the members, since socialismwas not a goal of the Congress, and many of Gandhi's followers did notsupport it, finding it divisive and tending to encourage violence globally. He was condemned by the young men for not severing all tieswith the British. Most people focus on Mahatma Gandhi,while Indira Gandhi created considerable controversy during her time inpolitical power. His contributions to the international peace and social justiceeffort were lauded, as was his contribution to the development and growthof UNESCO itself. It was all ofthis that he sought to promulgate in India, and in his foreign policydealings with the rest of the world. He was poet,intellectual, theoretician, and sometime popular political leader, but hewas not good at the intraparty and coalition-building work that Gandhi wasso expert at. However, at the time, and today, therewere those who disagreed with his political stances and decisions, ordoubted the efficacy of his actions. Certainly, Gandhi's influence was important here, andNanda (1996) noted that Nehru viewed this as an ideal result from thepursuit of satyagraha and its nonviolent principles. It was the beginningof the struggle that was eventually to free India. Both were deemed to be superiorand both were expected to serve as the authorities for the people as awhole. Washington, D.C.: Government PrintingOffice. He was notprimarily an opportunist, perhaps even less so than Gandhi. They also contended that Nehru's support of socialism was detrimental tothe national struggle for freedom. Nehru acted decisively in dealing with Indian problems of unemploymentand potential revolution by supporting legislation abolishing absenteelandlordism and redistributing land to the workers on the land. (1966). Nehru had supportedthe Hindu Code Bills, which were derived from recommendations of the HinduCode Committee. According to mostreports, he was impatient, irritable, arrogant, and became more so as heaged, rather than less. Perhaps an even more accurate characterization of Nehru is that he wasa bridging figure, an individual who sought to reconcile in his own person,and in his own country, some of the great conflicts of the 2 th century.He claimed to be both an individualist and a socialist, a nationalist andan internationalist, a democrat and an elitist intellectual. However, these principles were not always effective in practice.Relationships between India and Pakistan remained problematic throughoutNehru's tenure. One of thethings he valued about Gandhi's work was its emphasis on indigenousindustry, agrarian development, and the elimination of untouchability andother forms of class privilege. Instead, he remained the young man hewas when he returned from his studies in England, impatient with hiscolleagues and liable to become angry and irritable when they disagreedwith him. Nehru did shape the course of early Indian independence. The people of India wereused to responding to people like him as leaders; they had the model of theKashmiri Pandit and the British governors. (1965). However, these were still significant pieces of legislation inimproving the situation of Indian women. However, the other influences in his life,including Western individualism, modified his socialist stance. Pandey, B.N. Ghose (1975) noted that Nehru accepted Gandhi ashis leader and found great rewards in the noncooperation movement, both inits efforts toward national freedom and its purity of means and emphasis onmoral freedom. Nonetheless, Motilal Nehru was the founder of a financial andpolitical dynasty that was to dominate India until the early 198 s. In Heitzman and Worden(Eds.). These principles included: (1) mutual respect forterritorial integrity and sovereignty; (2) mutual nonaggression; (3) mutualnoninterference in internal affairs; (4) equality and mutual benefit, and;(5) peaceful coexistence. Nehru himself described himself as political a link betweenthe differing ideas of socialism and Gandhiism, noting that he could tonedown their differences while emphasizing the unity of their struggleagainst imperialism. India - A country study. He was somewhat of a remote figure and certainly not involved withthe masses of people in India. However, he also noted that Indiannationalism in these early years was relatively reactionary, a form ofreligious nationalism, and that the moderate members of Congress actuallywere more progressive, including the views of modernity along with theirmove toward greater freedom for India. Thesewere already quite high, and Nehru's secularism was a deliberate choicethat followed the Western model of separation of church and state. Curzon's repressiveness politicized many Indian moderates,including leaders in the Congress party, and by 19 6, the new president ofthe Congress, Dadabhai Naoroji, began to advocate the principle of Swarajor self-government (Norman, 1965A). He struggledfor much of his life to reconcile some of the contradictions in his life,and that capacity to include dualities was both his gift and his downfall. Clearly the dominant figure in Nehru's life, and his politicaldevelopment, was that of Mahatma Gandhi. Hanson, A.H. This was his course. However, in action, Nehru had difficulty in instituting the politicaland legal reform that would ensure women's equality. These never lefthim as influences on his personality and character, although his thoughtwent far beyond them. Again, one sees that Nehru's idealism was undercut by politicalnecessity. Toward the end of his time in office, and his life, Nehruwas also overwhelmed by conflict with China which invaded India in 1962.India did not respond well to the invasion and Nehru himself was worn downby the conflict (Paul, 1995). (1995). In particular, the SecondFive-Year Plan, designed to cover 1956-1961, sought to move the countryrapidly toward increased income and industrialization, expanded employment,and reduced economic inequalities. The childhood and adolescence of Nehru prepared him for one thing. After independence, the countryadopted the British model of parliamentary government, which meant that theCongress party was distinguished from the government, which had notpreviously been the case. This was what was to influence Nehru, even during his years in schoolin England. It included 3 women, from allareas of the women's movement, and had the job of considering women'ssocial, economic, and legal status and all obstacles that got in the way ofequal status and opportunity for women (Ali, 1991). London:Derek Verschoyle. Nanda, B.R. Nanda, B.R. He thought thatthe countries had a great deal in common, with their rudimentarydevelopment, vastness, and reliance on agriculture. He sought toprovide moral leadership for newly independent countries that had sufferedunder colonialism. Nehru hadbeen much influenced by socialism, including the brand in the Soviet Union. NY: TheJohn Day Company Norman, D. In practice, however, Nehru's policies as prime minister, and evenearlier, had to represent compromises between scientific socialism and whatwas politically acceptable in his own party. Nehru, despite his father's opposition, was early to adopt theideas of the radical Congress members and extend them. As Pandey (1976) noted, the family culture of his fatherincluded elements of both Hindu and Muslim culture. As notedearlier, it was his influence that helped keep Indian membership in theBritish Commonwealth, even after all the years of conflict between Indiaand the Empire. I. There were teachers from the Hindu, Muslim, and Britishtraditions, as well as food prepared in the kitchen for Hindu, Muslim, andBritish tastes. Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO. Nehru - the first sixty years. He early linked theIndian struggle for independence with the global struggle againstcapitalism and imperialism. This awareness meant that Nehru, ata relatively young age, had the perspective of those who see, and attemptto synthesize opposing viewpoints. He supported Indianfreedom and self-government. NY: Stein and Day. At that event, both Indiannationals and individuals from other countries discussed some of the themesand contributions of his life. Modern Asian Studies, 28(1), 165-195. However, Paul also noted that Nehru attracted considerablecriticism after the Soviet invasion of Hungary because of his refusal tocondemn communist aggression as actively as he condemned Westernimperialism and aggression,.Personal Evaluation It seems quite arrogant to attempt to evaluate an individual who hadsuch a complex task to perform and so many difficult situations to dealwith. (1972). In addition, Nehru's contributions to his country existed on manylevels, not just the level of the exercise of elected political power. He had trouble satisfying people because he was not sufficientlydoctrinaire in any one direction. He was critical of foreign aid programs for many reasons,although he sought out the most modern science and technology to aiddevelopment efforts and industrial expansion (Raman, 1994). At thattime (and both earlier and later), the men disagreed in some basic waysabout the direction of India, particularly the role of socialism in theongoing movement (Nanda, 1973). It was not reallyuntil the 2 th century that the religious strains began to show in majorconflict and violence. It gained converts, but still did notcompete with Hinduism as the majority religious faith. These were the basis of his foreign policy andthey became the basis of relationships between many nations in thenonaligned world through adoption at the Asian-African Conference inBandung, Indonesia in 1955 (Heitzman and Worden, 1995). He was expelled from the League AgainstImperialism. Islam moved into India during the medieval period and it, too,was tolerated by most of the people. He sought freedom forthe individual, including women. As a consequence, Nehru had to work to support severaldifferent pieces of legislation, including the Hindu Marriage Act, theHindu Succession Act, the Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act, and the DowryProhibition Act, all of which were passed between May of 1955 and July of1961 as compromise measures (Som, 1994). While Nehru's father believed that this was an aberration ofindividual British citizens, not inherent in British culture, it was asource of strong feelings among the young people. Clearly, those who came after him inpolitical leadership in India have not had an easier time of it and theforces and problems that were current then still impact India today. During the late193 s, he was instrumental in the creation of a sub-committee to theNational Planning Committee (which was itself the major working group ofthe Working Committee of the Congress Party) that was specifically designedto study Woman's Role in Planned Economy. The Congress party itselfdominated the new Indian parliament. As a consequence, unemployment fell, incomerose, violence levels decreased, and the possibility of revolutionlessened.How Seen by His Own People Obviously this varies greatly. Nehru was not only supported by Gandhi for leadership, but byhis own father and many of the other older men involved in the movement.As noted earlier, he had been trained for leadership. Nonetheless, there are few good alternatives to it, sinceextremist leaders of the different faith communities are unwilling tonegotiate with each other, and have little trust of each other (Bilgrami,1994). In looking at Nehru's life, one can see the beginnings of thatsynthesis of dualities that was to characterize his thought and his career. Karakanoted that he is one of the disillusioned, and that there was a wholegeneration in India which had worshipped Nehru during the fight forindependence, but felt let down by him afterward. He seemed to them to be unwilling to defend his stance,while treating most of his peers with impatience and irritability (Ghose,1975). Pandey (1976) noted that Nehru's fullest commitment to politicswithin India was probably begun in 192 and 1921, after the First WorldWar. NY: TheJohn Day Company. One example of thereason for this hostility is provided by a book by D.F. Another important contribution of Nehru was the secularism thatcharacterized the Indian nation. References Ali, A.A. His family was well-to-do, with hisfather Motilal a wealthy Allahbad lawyer involved in Indian politics, butstill quite Anglicized until after meeting Gandhi. Gokhale, Gandhi and the Nehrus. He wasactually the first to adopt the Nehru surname and he became increasinglyAnglicized and attached to European values and culture (Pandey, 1976). (1965). It also included a traditional Hindu core, however, as Pandey(1976) noted. It was that interest in socialism that created the first major crisisof Nehru's political career at the 1936 Congress. The two important influences of his life,Gandhi and the British, also contributed to this development. Jawaharlal Nehru is the bridging figure between these twoand an important influence on India in his own right.Background on Nehru Jawaharlal Nehru spanned the decades during which India sought itsindependence and gained freedom after World War II. Nehru is still remembered in India onhis birthday as a great and significant leader for the country. Participants included individuals fromScandinavia, the Soviet Union, the Middle East, and South and CentralAmerica. He was born, and educated,to be a leader among the people. As Ghose(1975) noted, Nehru never was a doctrinaire socialist, and he brought tohis prime minister role a socialism that included elements ofindividualism, democracy, and social and economic justice. Paul, J.J. International Round Table onJawaharlal Nehru. In later years, Nehru continued to seek the middleground in economic and political life, striving to meld democraticnationhood with a socialist pattern of economic and social development. (1976). Essentially, what was meant by that was that Nehruwas not good at party politics and the kinds of backroom deals thatcharacterize political machinations. Many yearsbefore independence, Gandhi began promoting Nehru as a future politicalleader for all of India and this had a big impact on his career (Norman,1965A). The resurgence of Indian women. Heencouraged foreign investment and infrastructure development in India,although he attempted to maintain indigenous enterprise, following Gandhianprinciples. While such issues have nevercompletely disappeared in the relationship between the sexes, women havebuilt on these legal and constitutional rights to improve their position. He enunciated what he termed thePanch Shila, or five principles of foreign policy, in April 1954 in a tradeagreement with China. However, the house that Nehru grew up in actually had severaldifferent aspects to it. Historical setting. Heitzman, J. Under the early leaders of thismovement, the Congress sought a measure of local self-rule, which seemed tobe unlikely under the repressive government of individuals such as LordCurzon. Som, R. Modern Asian Studies,3 (2), 469-48 . His father moved even further toward a multicultural perspectiveduring his lifetime, although it would not have been termed that at thetime. NY: St.Martin's Press. He pursued quite anindependent course - which is congruent with his background as Brahmin andintellectual. As Paul (1995)noted, this is primarily Nehru's legacy, and despite threats since hisdeath, it has not been altered by the strong forces impacting Indianpolitics. He was viewed as aleader who contributed to a unified view, bridging the gap betweencultures, between West and East, between the developed world and the ThirdWorld. Most of the assesment of Nehru was positive. It was at this time that the first reforms of the Indian CongressMovement were to be instituted, and it was at this time that Gandhiinaugurated his satyagraha movement in India itself. This was the British racialism, as it was then termed, inwhich British seemed to feel themselves racially superior to India's andother groups. Jawaharlal Nehru and the Hindu code: A victory ofsymbol over substance? If the statehad been grounded in Hinduism, for example, it would likely haveexacerbated the tensions between Muslim and Hindu, Sikh and Hindu. He did notbelieve that India should be freed simply to replace one oppressivegovernment by an indigenous one that was equally oppressive. Nehru - The lotus eater from Kashmir. Nonetheless, there were otherinfluences and these should be explored. Both his Brahmin background and his British education seemed tocombine to give him an elitist attitude, and behaviors, that were offensiveto many people. (1991). Nehru and the modern world. Thus, Nehru, until hiscontact with Gandhi, was influenced more by Western ideas and movementsthan by those from his own country and culture. And Worden, R.L. This was afundamental problem that he never seemed to overcome, or even made mucheffort to overcome. (1994). Perhaps one of the most accurate assessments of Nehru is that of Raman(1994), in which the author states that Nehru was a poet and a philosopher,but not a politician. In this respect, Gandhi did not seem to have amajor influence on his development. This Committee had taken its mandate from the KarachiCongress in 1931 in which the Congress had agreed, in principle, to genderequality as a fundamental right (Som, 1994). He was born into a family that was upper-caste Kashmiri Brahmin, but ofmixed heritage. He was known as an important political leader within theCongress Party and his writings contributed to the growth of the movement. Karaka (1953) whichcondemns Nehru in the strongest terms, calling him a lotus-eater (apejorative term) and denouncing his decisions after independence. Vol. These weremajor overhauls of India's religiopolitical system relating torelationships between the genders. Gandhi struggled with his commitment to socialism andthe global conflict with imperialism and capitalism. The quintessential Nehru. Nehru had developed a form of democratic socialism that he attemptedto enact through planned development and five-year programs. The family held Hindubeliefs and social values, but adopted Persian speech, dress, and diet,among other things. Within the Congress, theWorking Committee served as the leadership of the party and of the strugglefor independence. India - A country study.Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. The reforms raised the minimumage at which women could be married from 12 to 15, allowed women both todivorce their husbands and inherit property in their own right, andprohibited the enforcement of the dowry system (Paul, 1995). He is muchloved and venerated in the country. It was located in a relatively Europeanized areaand was one of the most modern of Indian homes, including all theamenities. He was a socialist primarily because he believed that socialismwould free the masses of people in India from exploitation. Nehru and the British. Vol. Nehru's effort was an attempt to reinforcereligious toleration in the country and to contribute to nation-building ina pluralistic society. Yet, Nehru was a good choice for the first prime minister of the newindependent India. Contemporary Review,265(1544), 138-144. Nehru's primary appeal during the earlier years of his career was tothe intellectuals and to the left-wing of the movement for independence inIndia. It was Gandhi who served as the peacemaker here, even though hedisagreed with Nehru's political stance. One of those influences was the British Empire itself. It is doubtful that Nehru could have come to power in newly-independent India without the long-term support of Gandhi. Nehru - the first sixty years. In looking at foreign policy, Nehru carefully sought a course amongthe non-aligned Third World nations. Instead, he believed in the progress of theindividual through the elimination of obstacles to freedom, includinggender inequality, class privileges, capitalism, and imperialism. The Yale Journalof Criticism, 7(1), 211-228. He noted that it was not justNehru's socialism that offended his colleagues, but his arrogance andimperiousness. He sought a moderate course in a polarized worldand he tried to respect a variety of viewpoints within hs own country andinternationally. This was not agreeable to all Indians,including all Indians who had fought for independence.How Seen by the Rest of the World Some indication of how Nehru was viewed by the rest of the world atthe time of his death is provided by a roundtable discussion of his lifeand work that was sponsored by UNESCO. (1995). Nehru gained a position of some influence in the nonaligned worldafter World War II, among both Asian and African nations. He was their hero,according to Karaka, but he failed them when he had the opportunity to leadthem into the future. He was believed to be a major force between thephilosophy of UNESCO, which emphasized education, social justice, andpeaceful development (Nehru and the modern world, 1966). Two concepts of secularism. India's democracy. Part of the problem with Nehru seems to have been his manner, ortemperament. (1994). BothBuddhism and Jainism arose within India itself, and although not adopted bya large number of people, they were tolerated and accepted from thebeginning. (1953). He was moved byprinciples of love and care for the people of his country and throughoutthe world. Nehru is quite an impressive, modern figure. Nehru's secularism also had other important sources. He was the picture of the meeting of Western elites and Easternelites, being both Brahmin and intellectual. (1994). He attempted the difficult task of balancing many differentperspectives and ideas. As Paul (1995) indicated, the hallmarks of hisleadership were nationalism, anticolonialism, internationalism, andnonalignment. The outer precincts of the house, where guests were receivedand business conducted, was very similar to other European, andspecifically English, homes. The aim of the family wasto become more and more civilized on the British model, not to retain, orregain, connection to the indigenous culture. Gandhi's support for Nehru was also strong and it was felt throughouthis early career in many instances. Yet, Nehru himself was a democrat, or supported the concept ofdemocracy, even though he was not particularly suited to it by birth,education, or temperament. II. In terms of women's rights, Nehru had long been known as a majorsupporter of women's equality and the women's movement. However, although Nehru gained his power in the Congress withGandhi's support, he was not Gandhi's mouthpiece in the Congress. Thissecularism has increasingly become a problem as Hindu nationalism hasincreased. Nehru. Truly, it was a multicultural environment, and arelatively peaceful one, during the early years of Nehru's life. Nehru noted that he had a multitude of early influences, but that hisfather was one of the predominant ones. The Congress filled many roles at the time and was theonly important gathered body within India working to remove the Britishfrom India and replace them with a distinctively Indian, modern, nationalgovernment. Born in 1889, Nehruactually died in office in May of 1964. He was the predominant politicalfigure in India during the period between 1947 and 1964, shaping the modernIndian state as a federal, democratic, and secular state. It was expected ofhim that he would take his place in the Congress and serve an importantrole. Yet, hehimself, gained considerably from class privilege, capitalism, andimperialism, to a certain extent, and was formed by them. While he sought intellectually to be a reconciler, asynthesizer, a link, or a bridge, between groups and between different setsof ideas, he was temperamentally not suited to that. And Douglas, J. Norman, D. By the time Nehru was prime minister, however, more conservativeelements in the government directly opposed inclusion of these measures inHindu Law. Indeed, Nehru took back the presidency ofCongress for a period of time, serving both as Prime Minister and as leaderof the party (Hanson and Douglas, 1972).Contribution to Country Nehru's contribution to his own country began long before he gainedpolitical office. This was a very strong condemnation of Nehru and a strong statement ofthe disillusionment some factions within India felt after independence.The British were not absolutely condemned and outcast, Hindu nationalistsdid not gain the ascendancy, pure socialism was not the rule, and there wasstill considerable Westernization. Essentially, Nehru was a believer in freedom. Hewas a member of one of the privileged classes of Kashmiri Brahmin, and hisearly life prepared him for assuming this role. RadiantPublishers. He was a principled man, anintellectual at the core, and he sought to lead the country and his ownlife based on the principles he had absorbed from his British upbringing,his later socialist learning, and his work with Gandhi. He had admired the Soviet Union's advances in education, in women'srights, and in improving the position of the peasantry. It was not until his involvement withGandhi that he became connected to the larger movement of the people in thetotal continent and began to carry his appeal to the masses. They lived a life that was based on a British model, includingeducation, language, and conduct of social life. NY: W.W.Norton & Company, Inc. There continues to be some challenge tothese provisions, and dowry, in particular. This at least partlyexplains some of his decision after Indian independence, particularly hissupport of India's continued membership in the British commonwealth ofnations (Nanda, 1996). Nehru himself was educated in England, attending both Harrow andCambridge. He did not likereligion, nor anything that appealed to the metaphysical, despite India'straditional background. His downfall was not only his personality, but perhaps thecomplexity of the situation. He was a strong proponent of nationalfreedom. Nehru's direct route of ascendance to the prime minister position wasfrom the presidency of the Congress assembly. Internally, however, the core was Hindu, withNehru's wife ruling the family from that hearth or center in a relativelyorthodox fashion. For example, it was Gandhi's supportin the Indian Congress that helped Nehru to the presidential chair of thatCongress in 1936 and 1937. (1973). One factor seemed to mar this and be a source of contention for theNehru family. He noted that while his father wasconservative in modern terms, for the times he was a "great rebel" whostood up to many religious and social customs that he did not believe werehelpful. Raman, A.S. As a consequence, Nehru had the model of a strong, opinionated,non-conforming father who continued to take great interest in his world andsupported Nehru, even when they disagreed (Norman, 1965A).Process by Which He Came to Power The Indian Congress Movement was born at almost the same time thatNehru was, being founded in 1885. This connection began during the 192 s, although Jawaharlal wasalways to have mixed feelings about satyagrha and its connection withreligious nationalism, rather than secular or socialist nationalism.Nonetheless, Nehru was as deeply committed to Gandhi as he was to Indiaitself. India hasactually long been fairly tolerant of other faith traditions. In looking more specifically at domestic policy as a whole, Nehruprovided strong direction to the country in its development process. He wasfundamentally not a very good politician, and certainly did not have eitherthe moral authority or the political savvy of Gandhi. While leftists condemned him,Nehru did put in place a number of policies and structures supportive ofeconomic planning and socialist development. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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