Methods of Comparitive Politics   Term Paper ID:27181 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Describes various methodological approaches to comparative politics, including systems theory, Wiarda's "islands of theory," developmentalism, & behavioralism.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Describes various methodological approaches to comparative politics, including systems theory, Wiarda's "islands of theory," developmentalism, & behavioralism. Paper Introduction: INTRODUCTION The field of comparative politics is one in which a variety of different approaches have been undertaken to the material at hand, with varying results. Macridis and Brown (1977) note that the field remains in flux at the time they are putting together their book of readings in the subject: "There has been little theory building and cumulative empirical testing and data collection. There has been also little agreement on concepts and definitions or on the scope and range of comparative analysis" (p. 1). There are various theoretical approaches apparent in different writers on the subject, however, whether or not those approaches have been codified or presented in a comprehensive and coherent manner as theory. Macridis and Brown give a good overview of the way theoretical Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. The traditional approach had several shortcomings which werethen much discussed: 1) It dealt primarily with a single-culture configuration. They find further that the methodology ofbehavioral science is being applied more and more to the sociopoliticalissues of the day, which some see as a problem-solving approach (p. 8).ISLANDS OF THEORY Wiarda (1985) ends up with what he calls the "islands of theory"approach. Stanley Hoffman first suggested this idea: "He argued cogentlyand convincingly that since the comparative politics field had by now lostits earlier unity, those active in the field should accept this factrealistically rather than simply lamenting it or wishing it away" (p. They define system as an ecological conceptimplying an organization interacting with an environment: "The politicalsystem in a society is especially distinguished by its relation to accepted(legitimate) coercion; the policies made by the political system canlegitimately be backed up by coercion and obedience compelled" (p. The theory they offer as fulfilling these conditions is DavidEaston's system theory, a model that is highly abstract but thatnonetheless fits the requirements. Macridis and Brown (1977) note that the field remains influx at the time they are putting together their book of readings in thesubject: "There has been little theory building and cumulative empiricaltesting and data collection. 3) The student was thus prevented from dealing systematically notonly with nondemocratic Western political systems but with colonial systemsand other "backward" areas. The authors find aninteresting shift in the developmental perspective as young people in theWest seem to be showing an ambivalence about material values, the absolutevalue of hard work and achievement, and a mood of experimentation: "It isquite unlikely that these tendencies among the educated young in the Westwill lead to a dismantling of industrial civilization. For Wiarda, the next step istoward a more diverse and fragmented field that is served by the "islandsof theory" approach. The behavioralapproach has been challenged by what has been called the "post-behavioralrevolution." The authors write: "The post-behavioral revolution does notdisplace behavioralism in its broader dimension but sensitizes thepolitical scientist to the role of values and the importance of policyconsiderations. Brown, Comparative Politics. 5). The other side finds outputs, or decisions aimed at alleviatingpredicaments or meeting demands: "The interplay between demands anddecisions affects the level and the intensity of supports that can rangefrom very positive, when the system is highly legitimate and stable, tovery negative when there is widespread disobedience" (p. This approach emphasizes first that there is no one comprehensiveand satisfactory theory, and instead what the field seems to face is aseries of theories applicable to various parts of the field. 4) Research was founded on the study of isolated aspects of thegovernmental process within specific countries, so it was comparative inname only.The authors also find that the comparative study of politics wasexcessively formalistic in its approach to political institutions becauseit focused on the formal institutions of government and neglected importantinformal arrangements. Wiarda says that thereason there is no single, overarching theory on which scholars can agreeis because the field is fragmented and divided since the 196 s (p. In the 196 s, development was the theoretical base for studyingthe field. ReferencesAlmond, Gabriel A., G. no common body of theory andknowledge has evolved to which the student of comparative politics can bedirected" (p. 6). He views a "system" as a decision-makingmechanism operating within the framework of beliefs and attitudes held bythe people about their regime, or their basic form of government. He finds that the early sixties was aperiod of unity and optimism, and this was reflected in the field ofcomparative politics. Bill and Hardgrave (1973) seem to feelthe same way and offer in their book what they identify as "a theoreticalintroduction to and an analytical framework for the field of comparativepolitics" (p. This theory isan input-output theory, seeing the system as receiving inputs of demandsand supports from the environment (both domestic and international) and astrying to shape them through its outputs (p. Almond and Powell (198 ) set out to describe a specifictheoretical approach based on system and environment and based onobservations of different societies even as what they observe can beapplied to many different societies once it has been analyzed andreconstructed as an analytical tool. Merrill, 1973.Macridis, Roy G., Bernard E. Theauthors find that the more developed nations have more developedinstitutions, though they also have more "developed" problems anddifficulties that have to be addressed by their political system and itsstructures. Thetheory should not prescribe one and only one research procedure but shouldinstead make it possible to use the procedure to be the most feasible underthe existing field situations. Hardgrave Jr., Comparative Politics. 16-17). There are two basic emphases involved: thefirst is the formulation of concepts, hypotheses, and explanations insystematic terms, and the second the empirical methods of research. This trend will play an important role in charting thefuture directions into which the study of comparative politics will move"(pp. Lippincott, 198 .Bill, James A., Robert L. The behavioral approach has been concerned primarily with eightcharacteristics: regularities, verification, techniques, quantification,values, systematization, pure science, and integration. For instance, some political systems havebureaucracies and some do not, and some have organized interest groups andsome do not. One sidefinds demands constantly pressing for satisfaction and supports that areseen as positive feelings of loyalty and attachment to the politicalsystem. It is at this stage thatthe political scientist develops theories about social and politicalrelationships (pp. He finds that it is probable that this new diversityand fragmentation reflects the prevailing fragmentation and uncertainty inAmerican society in the 198 s. 4). v). In their approach, threeconcepts provide the unity and coherence of the approach--system,structure, and function. 4).Structures are developed in societies to carry on the many activities ofthe system, and the specific activities are called functions and enable thepolitical system to formulate and enforce its own policies. Socializationplays a role in creating supports, and this is stressed to involve notsimply the education and induction of the young into the system but theresponsiveness of the elites to new political groups and openness to theparticipation of all groups in the decision-making process. Boston: J.B. 7). Inherent in Wiarda's analysis is the idea that the field ofcomparative politics was unified in the 196 s and later entered a period ofdecline. Wiarda points to Almond as aproponent of development theory, which came about as new nations emerged inAfrica, nations that needed development in the economic sense. There are various theoretical approaches apparent in differentwriters on the subject, however, whether or not those approaches have beencodified or presented in a comprehensive and coherent manner as theory.Macridis and Brown give a good overview of the way theoretical conceptshave developed in the field and of the work still to be done. The developmental approach came about during and because ofthe Cold War, and this fact also came under attack. The 197 s was a period of disunity and apprehension,and this as well was reflected in the field. The authors find that even theMarxist-Leninist leaders saw these goals as absolute ends, though theirtiming and strategy differed from that of the West. While there was fertile ground for study in between,there was a tendency to move to the two extremes (p. The authors also find that the behavioral approach is being appliedin different ways, with the trend being away from thespeculative/contemplative and towards the meaningful application of socialand political knowledge. Columbus, Ohio: Charels E. 6).Wiarda notes that Macridis has called particularly for less parochialism inthe study of comparative politics, in keeping with the statements citedabove by Macridis and Brown about the shortcomings of traditional theory.Wiarda also nods to the Easton system approach and notes that it developedin the late fifties and early sixties. They find that it should be capable of generatinghypotheses. 2 9). Bingham Powell Jr., Comparative Politics Today: A World View. 2) Comparative study within this culture configuration dealt mainlywith representative democracies and treated nondemocratic systems asaberrations from the democratic norm. Developmental goals have beentaken for granted in the West, and these goals are seen asindustrialization and democratization. They state that it should be geared to theproper level of abstraction so as to include the essentials needed forpolitical analysis. The second step is to sort out the findings and to classify the phenomenaobserved into types. The authors call their approach the system and environment approach,though it is an offshoot of the earlier developmentalism proposed by Almondand includes developmentalist perspectives. The authors take a developmental perspective as they consider thecontrasting dimensions of industrial and preindustrial nations. But that they aremore than youthful excesses is suggested by growing anxiety in Westerncountries over industrial and other forms of environmental pollution, urbanblight, the exhaustion of natural resources, and the deterioration of moralstandards and respect for government and the law" (p. Theessence of the behavioralist approach is that all hypotheses must beexperimentally confirmed with reference to publicly observable changes inbehavior. An examination of these works willshow the diverse theoretical perspectives in use today and point to some oftheir strengths and weaknesses.GENERAL TRENDS AND THE SYSTEM APPROACH Macridis and Brown (1977) detail the general trends they haveobserved in the field of comparative government, noting that after WorldWar II there was widespread dissatisfaction with the state of comparativepolitics. Wiarda(1985) also finds that the field is in a state of crisis because of afailure on the part of scholars to define the parameters of the fieldprecisely and to set forth its methodology in a convincing fashion. 23). It was furthercriticized as perpetuating myths and stereotypes about developing nationsthat were destructive of cherished traditional institutions within thesesocieties. The authors also note the failure of the behavioral approach that wasin vogue for a time. Comparative politics seems totake its cue from the stability and tensions within the surroundingsociety. 2-4). Homewood, Illinois: Dorsey Press, 1977.Wiarda, Howard J., New Directions in Comparative Politics. They state that a theory should be bothcomprehensive and parsimonious. This failure has affected the field and those who study the field:"Graduate students looking for a 'central core' in comparative politics, abody of literature with certain basic definitions and concepts, aredisturbed and disenchanted by the lack of a clear focus, and have not beenso strongly attracted to the field as before" (p. The study of politics was largely descriptiverather than problem-solving, explanatory, or analytic in method (Macridisand Brown, 1977, pp. In otherwords, there are different theories for the different aspects ofcomparative politics but not for comparative politics as an overarchingsubject. They state that it failed on the one hand because ofefforts to build a grand theory while on the other hand it tended to studypolitical trivia. There has been also little agreement onconcepts and definitions or on the scope and range of comparative analysis"(p. 2-3). Different scholarshave stressed one or more of these characteristics. The third stage of comparison occurs as the politicalscientist looks for regularities in the relations among variables, such asthe social and economic conditions usually present in stable democracies,conditions leading to civil disorder, and so on. 15). 2 -21).DEVELOPMENTALISM Almond and Powell (198 ) state that the political scientist, inapproaching the question of comparative politics, generally does so with athree-step process. Thedevelopmentalist perspective was accused by critics of ignoring class andclass conflict, the play of international market and economic forces, anddependency. They note that the authors theypresent represent only a small effort in the larger body of work in thefield: "There is no common theory, no generally accepted or acceptableproposition for further research, no cumulative effort in the form of data-collection, data-sorting, and hypothesizing. Wiardaalso finds that there is no single integrating set of theories on which thescholars in the field can agree. 31).BEHAVIORALISM Bill and Hardgrave (1973) note that contemporary comparative politicsis marked by a deepening concern for theoretical and methodologicalconsiderations, and the issue of behavioralism is raised at this juncture.They define behavioralism as "the systematic search for political patternsthrough the formulation of empirical theory and the technical analysis andverification thereof" (p. There seems to be a difference in age between industrial andpre-industrial nations as well, with the pre-industrial nations in generalbeing of more recent origin, which also means that the problems of nationalidentity and loyalty may be more serious. What Macridis and Brown do offer in their analysis is asense of what a theory of comparative government should be like and whatrequirements should be fulfilled. 1). The theory should allow investigators sufficient freedom tochoose from among the empirical data the particular phenomena andstructures that relate to the general concepts embedded in the theory. Today, though, there is no longer a coordinating or integratingtheory for the field, and there is not even an agreed-upon set of concepts. Macridis and Brown present a series of readings on various subjectsunder the heading of comparative politics. INTRODUCTION The field of comparative politics is one in which a variety ofdifferent approaches have been undertaken to the material at hand, withvarying results. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1985.----------------------- 12 Wiarda sees this approach as valuable because the field has become diverseand encompasses a variety of different elements that have their owntheoretical structures and modes of analysis that are not necessarilytransferrable to other elements within the same field. Wiarda says that his own emphasis has been to see the emergence ofnew and fresh approaches as healthy and invigorating for the field, asushering in a period of reexamination and reordering for the comparativepolitics field" (pp. There were two alternatives in particular offered for thedevelopmentalist approach. Wiarda sees the developmentalist approach as having been dominantuntil it was challenged by a variety of alternatives in the late sixtiesand early seventies, including some that were resurrected from the earlierliterature. The first step is simple description, describing wholepolitical systems or their parts in various countries and at various times. The corporatist approach was one, and arejuvenated Marxist approach was another. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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