SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING.   Term Paper ID:26531 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines components & approaches of effective teaching & learning language, focusing on learner error & types of correction.Grammar translation, reading, audiolingualism, more.... More...

13 Pages / 2925 Words 13 sources, 29 Citations, OTHER Format $52.00 Return to List of Papers

Paper Abstract: Examines components & approaches of effective teaching & learning language, focusing on learner error & types of correction.Grammar translation, reading, audiolingualism, more. Paper Introduction: The treatment and reduction of learner error has long been considered to be the primary task of the language teacher. This was seen to be readily accomplished by the judicious provision of a form of negative feedback (error correction) and the systematic reinforcement of appropriate learner responses and other teacher-desired elements of learners’ production. However, both classroom teachers and researchers alike have realized that what was once thought to be a rather simple and natural aspect of the learning process is indeed a complex affair that has, over the last several decades, undergone marked changes due not only to the evolvement of various methodologies and approaches used by teachers in providing language instruction, but also to the way these methodologies and approaches perceive the notion of error and its place in second language instruction. The purpose of this paper Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Many of the methods and approaches described in this paper do notdirectly address the idea of error correction, either because they predatethat concept or simply because such an idea was not central to the goals ofthe people who developed the model. 176). C. TheDirect Approach used oral expression as the basis of instruction, avoidingan emphasis on grammatical rule giving and seeking to give to the learner apractical mastery for use of language on the ground. Byrne, D. Because, under this approach, rules andgrammar are not explicitly taught, error-correction is minimalized.Students are not required to speak until they feel comfortable doing so andso probably make fewer errors since they generate their own utteranceslater than usual in the language-acquisition process. C. Selected articles on the teaching of English as aforeign language. Rowley: Newbury House Publishers, Inc. Situational Approach The situational approach to teaching a second language, which has itsroots in the 192 s but developed into its current form in the 195 s, isalso based on structuralist theoretical principals, among them the ideathat speech is the core activity of language and the idea that theunderlying, deep structures of language must be linked to social situationsfor speakers to learn a foreign language (Richards and Rodgers, 1986, p.35). This in turn bolstered teaching and in service programs. Whereas error-analysis studies often focused primarily on describing the products of language learning in terms of error types, the focus on the field of second language acquisition was on explaining second-language learning in terms of more comprehensive theories of second-language learning processes (pp. Audiolingualism was honedas a theory in the 193 s and 194 s, in part because that historical perioddemanded that the U.S. Richards, J. (1967). government be able to train a large number of peoplein foreign languages and in part because of the increasing interest by anumber of Americans in the postwar years in learning a foreign language.Audiolingualism emphasized aural training first, followed by training inpronunciation, and then training in speaking, reading and writing (Richardsand Rodgers, 1986, p. Ollerspends much of his time in this paper discussing the limitations of such anapproach (these limitations are mostly theoretical ones having to do withthe near-impossibility of measuring affective variables and themethodological shakiness of relying on self-reporting for an accurateportrayal of affective states). 3). Teaching English as a foreign language.London: Routledge. 3). References Broughton, G. Even when others languages were taught, theywere usually taught by referring to the grammar and structure of Caesar'stongue. This approach recognizes an importantfact about the way that language is acquired in "natural" or non-classroomsituations, for as both children and adults people learn language not forthe pleasure of the elegance of grammatical rules, but so that they maycommunicate with each other. Error correctionpractices have followed these shifts at least in some measure: Teacherstend to made more corrections in the area of language that they believe tobe most important, whether that be grammar or pronunciation. and T. (It may also reflect the fact thatpeople's making mistakes in learning a new language was such an obvioushappening as to be considered uninteresting.) However, using the basictenets of each model or method of language acquisition, one can makereasonable deductions about how proponents of that theory would incorporatethe idea of error correction. All corrections must be directed not atthe mastery of rules but at increasing communicative abilities. In recent years, scholars and teachers have not only acknowledged theimportance of recognizing errors but have also praised them - which mightbe considered to be a sort of anti-error-correction strategy. While the basic idea behind error correction is thus a simple one, inpractice it is very complicated because the internal model a learner has ofa language is highly fluid, changing almost constantly as the learneracquires greater mastery over the new language. In its old sense it is simply the informal and often intuitive activity of any teacher who makes use of the utterances of his pupils to assess whether they have, or have not, learnt the particular linguistic points that he has been trying to teach - it is, in other words, an informal means of assessing and checking on a pupil's progress. With each new piece of acquiredinformation about the second language, the interlanguage changes, which mayin turn produce changes in the type and/or frequency of error that ismade.) As Richards (1985) notes, errors inform both about how well anindividual is doing in acquiring a new language and about the process oflanguage acquisition itself: A primary focus of error analysis and interlanguage studies was on the evidence learner error and learner performance provides to an understanding of the underlying processes of second language acquisition.... White, L. In R. Some ofthese models now seem slightly like phrenology - interesting butessentially irrelevant or even silly detours. 19). It provided a wide variety of activities to help maintain interest, and it made extensive use of visual ... This reflects a long-recognizedunderstanding (one that has been challenged with considerably intellectualforce in this century but one that still proves to have a certain pragmaticusefulness) that a person's first language creates certain heuristics andinternal models that will be used to acquire later languages. However, any errorcorrection must be made with due attention to humanistic concerns - forexample, the teacher is seen as a helper and facilitator rather than anunapproachable authority figure. (In fact, many scholarsbelieve that, as an individual acquires a new language, she or he createswhat is termed an "interlanguage", or a sort of working text that helps theperson shift back and forth between the already acquired rules of the firstlanguage and the fully developed but as yet undiscovered grammar, syntaxand vocabulary of the second language. These changing theories and models to some extent reflect changes inthe world itself and the shifting historical and social context thatnecessitated or encouraged the learning of secondary languages. It provided contextualized language practice in true-to-life situations including dialog, which had been used with success by many since the early Roman period. (1988). Teachers of theDirect Approach tended to frown on translation - long a staple element ofsecondary language acquisition - and (because of the emphasis on socialapplication) tended to teach cultural awareness along with the languageitself. Basic conversationalskills? 4). Most teachers are perfectly well able to give an account of the typical errors made by the students who pass through their hands; they often build up a useful list of so-called common errors (p. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. Errors that come to the fore in this approach may be seen toreflect a miscommunication between teacher and student (or between thelearner and any other individual) about the appropriate situation, often asituation that has not been described with sufficient detail to avoidambiguity. Although Krashen (1988) makes the importantpoint that people do take pleasure in consciously knowing grammatical rulesthis is essentially peripheral to the acquisition of language in the sameway that understanding Mendel's laws is peripheral to the pleasure ofgardening. English teaching perspectives. C. This approachhas a low emphasis on error-correction, which correlates with its emphasison inductive rather than explicit acquisition of grammatical and otherrules. These different methodsincorporate different models of learning, sometimes reflecting therealities of the classroom and sometimes being directly based or derived onlinguistic or psychological scholarship (Richards and Rodgers, 1986, p.14). When this method was introduced, it was almostinstantly accepted, due in part to the fact that it was recommended byprestigious scholars and universities. Listening comprehension? New York: Prentice Hall. Richards, J. Whatever side one wishes to choose in the still-continuing (but nowless vociferous) debate on the extent to which language acquisition isguided by a universal grammar and the extent to which it is linked to theparticulars of a given language, the idea of examining errors made byspeakers as a practical classroom tool in teaching secondary languagesremains a powerful one. Among thosemost direct in their praise of the errors made by those learning a secondlanguage is Carol Herron, who argued that learner errors are natural andbeneficial in the learning process (cited in Mings, 1993, p. Corder, S. (1978) reiterate this point, noting that errors are anessential part of the learning process and must be examined and used by anygood teacher to help the students gain competence and confidence in thesecondary language. Yet there are some indications, as he alsonotes, that affective attributes do make a difference in languageacquisition and feelings: Attitudes and beliefs may play substantial rolesin determining how quickly and how well a person acquires a secondlanguage. And "systematic study,interpretation and - where possible - remediation [of those errors] are ofconcern" (Celce-Murcia and McIntosh, 1979, p. 6-7), usually in an informal setting.Ironically, even as the Romans reached back to Greece, much of Europe forthe next 2 years would reach back to Rome, and second language trainingoften meant training in Latin. Related to this were the well-researched teaching syllabi, which removed virtually all guesswork for the teacher. (1993). Because these errors are systematic, theyprovide a gateway for scholars and teachers into understanding thelinguistic mechanisms a person uses in acquiring a second language. The complexity of the models also reflects the fact that even definingwhat one means by competence in a secondary language is an intricate andrather slippery thing, as Stern (1983) discusses. And finally it employed a variety of historically proven teaching practices: It was skill oriented, with a practical oral emphasis as practices by Quintilian, Erasmus and many others. But it also had a number of advantages over the older Direct Methodand related methods such as the Natural Method, as Bowen, Madsen, andHilferty (1985) note: [Audiolingualism] was accompanied by carefully prepared materials ... Second language acquisition and second languagelearning. As Byrne notes, the mistakes a learner makes allowthe teacher to "build up a picture of the features of the language whichare causing him learning problems" and thus allows that teacher to tailorthe course of learning to the specific problems of the individual (p. Hill, L. Early History of Language Acquisition Methods and Approaches Some of the earliest records of secondary-language instruction comefrom the classical world, a point that is hardly surprising since the greatclassical political powers, including most especially Rome, attempted tospread their influence by spreading their language. Rowley:Newbury House Publishers, Inc. 36-7). The problem of how to teach secondary languages is nearly as old ashuman society, for as soon as people divided themselves into groups thosegroups began to speak differently from each other - only then to find thatthey wanted to communicate. D. The Romans also triedto increase their status by linking their own civilization to the gloriesthat were Greece and so taught their children the language of Plato (Bowen,Madsen, and Hilferty, 1985, pp. Stern, H.H. It is probably true (and certainly commonsensical) that languageacquisition may be based on a recognition of universal grammaticalattributes hard-wired into the human DNA and cerebellum as well as theparticular intricacies of a given language. Under this method, errors are seen asinevitable by-products of language learning. London: Oxford University Press. 88). Changing perspectives on the utility of errorcorrection language acquisition. Research on the measurement of affectivevariables: Some remaining questions. W. 17) and dates from the 196 s and 197 s. Error analysis and interlanguage. The audiolingual approach depended heavily on quick and direct errorcorrection (Mings, 1993, p. W., Jr. Reading Approach This late-19th-century approach emphasized the importance of reading -as opposed to listening, writing or speaking - as a core language activity.It is a method now considered outdated, and yet remains useful in certaincontexts, such as those who wish to read technical articles in anotherlanguage and so who only need reading comprehension and no culturalknowledge or ability to converse.) The reading method may actually have aself-correcting element to it, although this is a modern overlay of atraditional method. Teaching English as a secondor foreign language. Sometimes grammar and syntax haveruled supreme; at other times phonology has won the day. In 1991 Krashen - whose theoretical models haveincreasingly under attack, but whose influence in the field remainssubstantial - found that attempts to correct spelling errors throughdirect, formal training are essentially useless and that almost allspelling is learned through reading (Mings, 1993, p. 84).Broughton et al. Universal grammar and second language acquisition.Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 17). As different theories on how to instruct people in learning a foreignlanguage have come into vogue, different aspects of language itself havebeen elevated to supreme importance or buried away as if embarrassing.Sometimes speech has been central; at other times reading or writtenlanguage have been thrust to the fore. 47). (1979). 23). Communicative Approach The Communicative Approach is based on a functional view of language,the view that language is a vehicle for expressing functional meaning(Richards and Rodgers, 1986, p. Direct Approach This approach was favored in the early decades of this century. A. But while the need to teach and learn alanguage other than one's mother tongue is a problem for the ages, themethods by which secondary languages have been taught have changeddramatically, sometimes seeming to change fashions as often as hem lengthsgo up or down, at least in recent decades. and McIntosh, L. (1986). This may in fact sometimes be the case;however, there are numerous instances of linquistic competence wedded tocultural ignorance. 43). P. While Chomsky's theories about a universal grammar arenow generally accepted at least in part, any teacher of secondary languageshas observed that what the student's first language is affects the learningprocess. Anderson (Ed.), Newdimensions in second language acquisition research (pp. 67-8). Mings, R. (198 ). Corder (1981) describes this long-standing, if not always explicit,recognition of the relationship between error analysis or correction andthe process of teaching secondary languages: Error analysis is both an ancient activity and at the same time a comparatively new one. (1989). 14). The context of language teaching. At least since the 196 s, scholars and educators have incorporated theidea of error analysis or error correction in their models and practices ofhow to teach a foreign language. S. This was seen to be readilyaccomplished by the judicious provision of a form of negative feedback(error correction) and the systematic reinforcement of appropriate learnerresponses and other teacher-desired elements of learners' production.However, both classroom teachers and researchers alike have realized thatwhat was once thought to be a rather simple and natural aspect of thelearning process is indeed a complex affair that has, over the last severaldecades, undergone marked changes due not only to the evolvement of variousmethodologies and approaches used by teachers in providing languageinstruction, but also to the way these methodologies and approachesperceive the notion of error and its place in second language instruction.The purpose of this paper is to provide an historical overview of theestablished research dealing with the evolving attitudes held by educatorsand researchers regarding error correction and the manner in which thissubject is viewed by the most commonly accepted methods and approachesemployed in second language instruction. with good results (pp. 175). (1978). London: Longman. 18). London: OxfordUniversity Press. Cognitive Approach This approach is a reaction to the behaviorist features ofAudiolingualism and emphasizes communicative competence. Listeningcomprehension is emphasized and humanistic and affective factors areconsidered central, which accords with the approach's emphasis oninteraction and communication. Gestures, pictures andcontexts were all used to embed the new language within the student'sexperiences (Bowen, Madsen, and Flaherty, 1985, p. During the course of the currentcentury, a wide variety of methods has been used. London:Oxford University Press. A native speaker's ability to discern nuance? The Grammar-TranslationMethod of teaching English and other languages as a foreign language usedgrammatical rules and paradigms to provide a basis for translating native-language sentences into the foreign language (Bowen, Madsen, and Flaherty,1985, p. The concept of examining systematic errors to determine how languageis acquired must take into account ideas held by many linguists about auniversal grammar for all languages, a theory whose most notable proponentis Noam Chomsky. Grammar-Translation Method What is now considered to be one of the first modern methods ofteaching second languages has its roots in the 18th century but did notemerge as a fully developed model until the early decades of the 19thcentury (Bowen, Madsen, and Hilferty, 1985, p. Foreign Language Annals, 171-177. Most people know an individual who speaks a languageflawlessly while having no interest in or no appreciation of the supportingculture. Because this method is based on the acquisition of rules (i.e.grammar), error correction is an important element of this form ofinstruction, with corrections made in reference to the violated rule ofgrammar and attempts made to get students to conform to the rules todemonstrate their knowledge of and skill with the language. (1985). Comprehension-Based Approach This approach, which was developed in the 197 s, defers speaking andwriting until the language is firmly established through listening (Bowen,Madsen, and Hilferty, 1985, p. Celce-Murcia, M. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. Because the communicative approach emphasizes the interactionalquality of language, it places little value on quick correction of mistakesin grammar or pronunciation: So long as the learner is attempting tocommunicate, all such attempts (even if not perfect from a structural pointof view) are encouraged. Krashen, S. Oller, J. Given the emphasis under this approach on how a person feels towardsthe target language community and its representatives, errors made inlanguage may be believed to represent either lack of knowledge or simplemisunderstanding of that community. 171), and this idea that errors should bequickly dispatched was held onto by many language teachers throughout mostof the current century. This approach was originally used in teaching Latin and Greekand then generalized to modern languages and includes teaching a great dealof vocabulary in isolated units, long and detailed explanations of thedetails of grammar, little emphasis on pronunciation and translation oftexts as the most common exercise (Celce-Murcia and McIntosh, 1979, p. Under this approach, both grammar and culture are taughtinductively and material is often introduced with actions or pictures.Translation is avoided entirely because the first language is never used inclass instruction (Celce-Murcia and McIntosh, 1979, p. Suchheuristics may in appear to "interfere" with secondary language acquisitionby causing the learner to err systematically in ways that reflect thestructure of the maternal tongue. As White notes, any heuristics derived from a firstlanguage and brought to bear on the learning of a second language must beweighed against the role that a universal language grammar - which would beheld by all humans with normal intelligence and neurological functioning -plays in the acquisition of any language. (1983). (1981). How one definescompetence determines in many determines how one teaches a langauge andcertainly substantially influences a teacher in what type of error she orhe is likely to correct. 51). et al. By competence does onemean reading comprehension? However, under this method, errors would still be best addressedby emphasizing the virtues of the target community. Itemphasizes the teaching of communicative proficiency in language ratherthan mastery of linguistic structures, using a dialogue-centered approachin the classroom with every attempt made to get students to communicatewith other people from the very beginning and any techniques or methodsthat worked in helping any individual communicate deemed appropriate(Richards and Rodgers, 1986, p. The fact that so manydifferent models of language teaching have existed (and that so many morewill no doubt be generated in the future) must certainly reflect the factthat while language is an essentially human activity, something that asboth biological and social beings people are all designed for, languagesthemselves are highly intricate and require time and skills to acquire. 67). (1981). 14-25). Fundamental concepts of language teaching. Audiolingualism Audiolingualism is based on a structuralist view of language, thetheory that language is a system of structurally related elements used tocode meaning (Richards and Rodgers, 1986, p. Rodgers. Affective-Humanistic Approach This approach, developed in the 197 s, recognizes an expectedconnection between "the social milieu, and the values of the people whoinhabit it ... The treatment and reduction of learner error has long been consideredto be the primary task of the language teacher. (and) second language learning" (Oller, 1981, p. This approach emphasizes the key point that the meanings of words andstructures are only the situations in which they can be used (Hill, 1967,p. Approaches and methods inlanguage teaching: a description and analysis. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

Many of our Papers can be Downloaded From This Site!

PLEASE READ THIS, IT IS IMPORTANT!

Office hours are Monday through Friday, from 9 am to 5 pm (PST). You may place orders for custom research over the phone during office hours. E-mail requests can be made to our graduate and undergraduate department any time, and will be reviewed during office hours. You may also contact customer service any time through e-mail, and we will review your message during business hours. A great many papers can be downloaded right from this site, but not all of them. If you would like to know if a particular paper is downloadable, just look in the description for: "Available for Internet Download: Y" or "Available for Internet Download: N" If you wish to purchase a paper which is NOT available for immediate download, you will need to make other shipping arrangements. Also, please be aware that these orders are processed Monday through Friday from 9 am to 5 pm (PST). If you place your order after 4:45pm on Friday, it will not be processed until the following Monday morning. We charge $8 per page for all of our pre-written reports, plus shipping (and tax for California residents). However, the highest cost of any ONE report is $136, or 17 pages. Please, take a moment. Make sure you have chosen the report you want or need BEFORE you complete your order. If you are not sure, allow us to help you. We do not offer refunds or exchanges, so it is important for you to let us answer your questions during office hours. Reports which are e-mailed or downloaded are in Microsoft Word format. We are making more reports available for e-mail delivery faster than we can update our listings. Please call to check on the status of particular reports. There are many other shipping options which are listed on the Checkout page.