CHILD ABUSE & CULTURE.   Term Paper ID:26286 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines cross-cultural differences in cause & treatment of physical abuse. Parenting, punishment, risk models, intervention, role of social workers.... More...

12 Pages / 2700 Words 18 sources, 24 Citations, APA Format $48.00 Return to List of Papers

Paper Abstract: Examines cross-cultural differences in cause & treatment of physical abuse. Parenting, punishment, risk models, intervention, role of social workers. Paper Introduction: CROSS CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN CHILD PHYSICAL ABUSE: THE THEORY AND RESEARCH INTRODUCTION Nature and Scope of the Problem Over several decades, a substantial body of research has been accumulated indicating that there are a number of crosscultural differences in people's perspectives of what constitutes physical abuse of children (Hart, Binkley & Brassard, 1998). Because many countries either collect no statistics on child physical abuse and/or only minimal statistics, it is impossible to arrive at a global estimate of the problem (Buchanan, 1996). However, it is known that in America alone, approximately three million children are reported to child protective services for child maltreatment; of these, about 22 percent are for physica Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. & Rossoni, E.(1998). These risk factors include several parental variables, childcharacteristic variables, and ecological variables. Birmingham, J., Berry, M. & Binkley, N.J. ParentingFactors Most of the cross-cultural comparison studies have addressed parentingvariables, although typically this research is restricted to examining fordifferences in parents perceptions of corporal punishment and discipline.For example, Hong and Hong (1991) studied 15 individuals equally dividedamong Chinese, Hispanics, and Whites. & Shay, S. CriminalJustice and Behavior: An International Journal, 18(1). Child abuse as an international issue. CROSS CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN CHILD PHYSICAL ABUSE: THE THEORY AND RESEARCH INTRODUCTIONNature and Scope of the ProblemOver several decades, a substantial body of research has been accumulatedindicating that there are a number of crosscultural differences in people'sperspectives of what constitutes physical abuse of children (Hart, Binkley& Brassard, 1998). Child abuse in the internationalyear of the child. (1996). In this regard, the authors reportthat such programs aim at creating new service systems for child protectionin low-income communities. It is further noted thatsome states are attempting to improve the situation by implementing acertification process for staff members in child welfare service. It was also found that, in both samples,parents were more likely to be abusers if they had a childhood history ofphysical abuse. This can be determined by examining cross-culturalresearch on parenting, child, and ecologicalfactors to determine whether they are in accord with theory. A typology of child protective service cases:design and implementation issues for social work administrators.Administrative Social Work, 21(2), 55-75. Dattalo, P. Ed 393 6 1. The team works to determine the child's psychological status anddevelopmental needs, assessing parenting capacities, developing a treatmentplan, and monitoring the family's progress. Dattalo (1997) recommends the development of case typologies as ameans of child protective service agencies delineating client problems andneeds, informing as to the design of service delivery, and assessingservice outputs and outcomes. Empirical Research 1n Relation to Multifactor Risk Model The question initially proposed in this section of the literaturereview was whether cross-cultural comparison studies support the view thatchild abuse arises out of a complex set ofparenting factors, child characteristics, and ecological factors. (1995). Journal of Emotional Abuse, 1(1), 27-56. (1998). Birmingham, Berry and Bussey (1996) have asserted that one programwhich would be very helpful would be to provide a program of training forsocial workers that would lead to certification for child protectiveservices staff members. (1996). An interaction between a childhood historyof physical abuse and father support was found where those with a historyof abuse and low levels of father support had the highest level of abusepotential and those with a history of abuse and high levels of fathersupport had the lowest level of abuse potential. "Time withfamilies" as a model for prevention and therapy. Mulroy, E.A. Wang, C.T. One intervention, developed as an earlyprevention model, was designed by Health Welfare workers in Lombardia,Italy. This programcombined intensive home care, psychology and social work, and socialrehabilitation, all with the purpose of increasing child protection. This is followed by an examination of theempirical literature on cross-cultural differences as they relate to thecross-cultural model of child physical abuse. fallaciesand interventions. The paper ends with theformulation of several conclusions about both child physical abuse indifferent cultures and about the general status of the cross-culturalliterature in the area. (1998). If these figures are multiplied on a global scale, it can soonbe seen that the scope of the problem of childhood physical abuse isenormous. This model postulates that the problem occurs dueto the presence of one or more sets of factors, each of which increase achild's risk for physical abuse in most cultures. Palmerus, K. Onceagain, it was noted that incidence of child physical abuse is likely toincrease with increases in the view that corporal punishment is a viablemethod of discipline. However, in general, the empirical researchsuggests that, in accord with the postulates of the multifactor risk model,the presence of one or more sets of risk factors will produce childphysical abuse regardless of cultural differences. Psychiatric Service, 49(2), 225-228. Regarding the empirical literature, it can also be concluded that agood deal more research must be done before strong confidence can be placedin the conclusion of support for the multifactor risk model. Current trends ln child abusereporting and fatalities: The Results of the 1977 annual fifty statesurvey. Specifically, it was found that Americans stated thatthey were more likely to use corporal punishment than did Indians. Child protection at home: a Finnish model. However,according to Taylor and Newberger (1979), the very early cross-culturalliterature does indicate that children with certain characteristics aremore likely to be abused than children with other characteristics.Specifically, it is noted that, regardless of cultural background, thecharacteristics of the child prone to abuse include hyperactivity,precocity, physical handicaps, or any other feature that marks the child asdifferent from other children.Ecological Factors Regarding ecological variables, in a synthesis of the empiricalresearch on child abuse conducted in other countries, Finkelhor (1988)observed that regardless of culture (with the tendency being somewhat morepronounced in non-western countries), children were somewhat more likely tobe physically abused if there is some type of social sanction or censurethe parent experienced as the result of having the child, if the child isin poor health or unwanted, if the child exhibits traits that are notvalued in the culture, or if there is some sort of rapid drop in parents'income. (1992). Physical child abuse. Buchanan, A. In another cross-cultural study, Palmerus and Scarr (1995) examinedfor differences in corporal punishment as a mode of discipline betweenfamilies living in Sweden, America, and Bermuda. Minerva Pediatrics, 5 (7-8), 375-379. Tentoni, P. & Bussey, M. Childhood social support, especially father support, was inverselyassociated with abuse potential. ChildAbuse and Neglect, 12(1), 3-23. Further, the research has not as yet expresslyexamined each and every variable postulated in the multifactor risk model.Thus, ongoing research must be a priority as all of the factors in themodel must be examined on a cross-cultural basis before it can be knownthat each is contributive to the problem. Theprogram's success was said to be heavily dependent upon good team workbetween the members ofthe various disciplines. In summary then, some but not all of the parenting factors postulatedby the multifactor risk model were tested in crosscultural studies. Interventions to remedy thephysical abuse problem are also examined. Contributing child factors are said to be the unwantedchild, the problem child, provocative behavior, and childhood stress andanxiety disorders. DePanfilis, D. The clarity andprecision afforded by the review should be of great assistance to socialworkers who, every day, are charged with the responsibility of dealing withcases of child physical abuse in families that span a diverse range ofcultures. It is further noted that inter-organizationalcollaboration and cooperation, essential to neighborhoodcollaboration and cooperation require social work practitioners to workacross multiple systems simultaneously -- skills that most are not trainedto possess. New England Journal of Medicine, 3 1(22), 12 5-1211. Tentoni, Guerrini, Invernizzi, De Vito and Rossoni (1998) report thatthe program's, termed the Time Out For Familiesprogram, has the following main components:(1) the "First Days" program, based on health visits made by professionalsto support the new mother in taking care of the newborn; (2) the clinic of child neuropsychiatry to evaluate and treatproblems in the early relation between mother and child during his firstthree years of life through two technical approaches: short mother-childpsychotherapy and functions' integrated therapy; (3) a Day Center open for parents and children to ease theirreciprocal relationships in this period of life, to start and realizeclinical interventions and to offer individual and group counseling toparents. Thistraining would provide social workers with the knowledge they need toeffectively and efficiently deal with the problem. Compared to subjects in theseother studies, Swedish parents were found to display low use of authority,a high level of verbal coercion, and a low level of physical punishment.These factors were saidto be probable contributors to the low rates of childhood physical abusethat have been observed in Sweden. Child Abuse and Nealect: The International Journal, 16(6), 887-9 8. Child Abuse Review, 1(2), 8 -88. In general, the team would consist of representatives from the legal,social service, mental health, and educational systems. Hart, S.N. However, it is known that in America alone, approximately threemillion children are reported to child protective services for childmaltreatment; of these, about 22 percent are for physical abuse (Wang &Daro, 1998). Child Welfare,7 (4), 463-475. Such an examination isimportant because by organizing and summarizing the existing knowledgebased upon cross-cultural studies, it is easier to understand both what isknown about the problem and what still remains unknown. Comparative perspectives on childabuse and neglect: Chinese versus Hispanics and Whites. (1998). Segal (1992) found significant cross-cultural differences between EastIndian and American parents' views of corporal punishment as a viablemethod of discipline. Administrative Social Work, 2 (2), 41-59. Typically, the abuseoccurs following precipitating situations, the most frequent of which arechild misbehavior, arguments, scapegoating, incessant crying, parentalfatigue, and parental frustration. & Newberger, E.H. & Scarr, S. (1979). Cross-cultural perspectives inchild abuse and neglect. and Daro, D. & Hong, L.K. Guerrini, B., Invernizzi, R., De Vito, E. (Ed.) (1991). According to Westman (1998) socialworkers, along with pertinent people from related disciplines, form childadvocacy teams that specifically focus on difficult cases of child physicalabuse. The author describes the development of atypology of the child protective services cases of one large publicdepartment of social services, and noted that the strategy improved thegeneral efficiency with which cases were handled as well as their outcomes. (1997). Taylor, L. These strategies include:programs to strengthen the parent-child bond; holistic programs combiningdiverse forms of therapy and treatment; socio-legal and advocacyapproaches; neighborhood- and community-collaboration approaches; thedevelopment of case typologies; the development of programs leading tocertification of child protective service workers and staff; and theadoption and implementation of risk assessment systems. Westman, J.C. (1996). The first of these conclusions is thatthe primary explanative model of child physical abuse in any culture is themultifactor risk model. Because many countries either collect no statistics on childphysical abuse and/or only minimal statistics, it is impossible to arriveat a global estimate of the problem (Buchanan, 1996). Hong, G.K. Finally, DePanfilis (1996) has advocated the adoption of riskassessment systems for service agencies as a means ofimproving the quality of service delivery to children and their families.It is noted that several evaluative studies of the impact of these systemssuggest that they have lived up to expectations -- provided that they wereimplemented and used as intended. Based on Attachment Theory, this model requires health care andchild welfare workers to promote and conduct short-term focusedinterventions aimed at securing the psychoemotional bonds between theparent (especially the mother) and the child. References Agathanos-Georgopoulou, H. Child Welfare,75(6), 727-74 . (1991). The existingcross-cultural research is quite sparse in several areas (e.g., childcharacteristics studies). (1997). (1992). In a study of 77 caseshandled by a University of Wisconsin child advocacy team over the past 2 years, Westman (1998) concluded that such teams are an effective means ofintegrating professional and volunteer activities for a family during achild protection action. With respect to the foregoing, Agathanos-Georgopoulou (1992) statesthat contributing parental factors include parental status, age, sex,socioeconomic status, history of being abused as a child, history ofantisocial behavior, presence or history of mental illness, and a lack ofimpulse control. Cycles of child maltreatment: Facts. According to Agathanos-Georgopoulou (1992), there are several setsof factors contributive to the risk of a child being physically abusedincluding parental factors, child factors, and ecological factors. Milner, J.S. In this regard, the authors note that cases comingto the attention of child protective service agencies are increasinglycomplex and difficult, while the number of trained staff members hasdecreased substantially over the last 1 years. However, ingeneral, when certain parental variables, child characteristic variables,and ecological variables are present, cross-cultural comparisons indicatethat the risk of the child being physically abused is going to increaseregardless of the cultural background of the family.Interventions To Prevent or Stop Child Physical Abuse Given that child physical abuse is a global problem and that,regardless of cultural differences, there are certain factors that willincrease the risk of childhood physical abuse occurring, many authors haveattempted to identify strategies and techniques which can be employed bysocial workers in dealing with instances of child physical abuse infamilies from diverse cultures. Childhood maltreatment,childhood social support, and child abuse potential in a Basque sample.Child Abuse and Neqlect, 19(8), 9 7-92 . To the extent that agencies properlyimplement such systems, DePanfilis suggests that they will be very helpfulto case workers.Conclusions Based on the presented review several conclusions can be formulatedabout the problem of cross-cultural child physical abuse and the status ofthe existing literature in the area. Theoretical Model of Cross-Cultural Child Physical Abuse According to Milner (1991), most cross-cultural models of childhoodphysical abuse are multifactor risk models which is to say that the abuseis characterized as the result of several contributing factors, each beingcontributive, in differing magnitudes, to the probability that childphysical abuse willoccur. Six categories ofdiscipline were examined: (1) physical punishment; (2) physical restraint;(3) reasoning, or childcentered explanations for why the child's behaviorwas inappropriate; (4) coercive verbal control; (5) low use of authority;and (6) behavior modification techniques. Certification for childprotective services staff members: the Texas initiative. It wasalso found that incidence of abuse increased with parents' degree oftolerance for punitive physical punishment regardless of culturaldifferences. Findings of the study indicated that the Chinese were more tolerant ofphysically punitive parental conduct than were either Hispanics and Whites.In addition, the Chinese were less likely to ask for investigation byprotective agencies in potential cases of child abuse and neglect. & Mugica, P. The second conclusion that can be derived based on the literature isthat the existing empirical literature on crosscultural child physicalabuse is generally supportive of the multifactor risk model. According to Mulroy and Shay (1997), the neighborhoodcollaborationmodel is another avenue for social workers to utilize in their efforts toprevent and treat child physical abuse. Empirical Research A key question that can be asked here is to what extentcross-cultural comparison studies of child physical abuse support themultifactor risk model? It is recommended that agencies electing to use this strategyprovide training to their workers. (1995). Further, physical abuse can havenegative psycho-emotional consequences that last well into adulthoodcreating problems such as alcohol and/or substance abuse, low-self-esteem,a tendency to repeat the cycle such that the physically abused child doeshim or herself become an abuser, and many other serious problems (Wang &Daro, 1998).Purpose of This Report The purpose of this paper is to examine the literature on cross-cultural differences in child physical abuse. It can also be concluded that there are available to social workersseveral strategies and techniques which can be used to combat the problemof childhood physical abuse in any culture. Specifically, it is said to enable child welfarepersonnel to monitor and follow-up parents' and children's healthconditions to determine their styles of attachment so to intervene in at-risk situations to prevent future complications or long term consequences. (1988). Segal, U.A. The presented review begins with an explication of crossculturaltheory on child physical abuse. How parents discipline youngchildren: Cultural comparisons and individual differences. Chicago, IL: National Committee to Prevent Child Abuse Press. In a study of Basque and American samples, de Paul, Milner and Mugica(1995) found that the overall rates of physically abusive behaviors towardchildren were highly similar. The child advocacy team in legalactions. (Paper presentedat the Biennial Meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development(61st, Indianapolis, IN, March 3 April 2). Together, Westmantl998) states, the team utilizes the principles and techniques of childadvocacy, as well as numerous other strategies such as the planningconference, conducting therapeutic-evaluation process, team meetings,report preparation, and courtroom participation. ERIC Document ReproductionService No. Somecultures may be more prone than others to have certain abusive factors;that is, some cultures may be more tolerant of corporal punishment or havemore limited definitions of what constitutes physical abuse. & Brassard, M.R. According to the authors, preliminary evaluative data collected onthe program suggests that it serves well as a bridge service betweenprevention and therapy. Child abuse in India: An empirical report onperceptions. Ingeneral, the findings tended to be in accord with the model indicating thatpositive parental views of physical punishment and a childhood history ofphysical abusegenerally increased the probability of child physical abuse.Child Factors Almost no cross-cultural studies of physical abuse and childcharacteristics could be found in the current literature. de Paul, J., Milner, J.S. Documentavailable at: www.sagepub.com. Niemi, H. Moreover, the consequences are severe, Wang and Daro (1998) reportthat in the United States alone, more than three children die every dayfrom either child physical abuse or neglect with others suffering seriousand long lasting physical injuries. Nonprofit organizations andinnovation: a model of neighborhood-based collaboration to prevent childmaltreatment. NY: Wiley. Evidence for theEffects of Psychological Maltreatment. Finkelhor, D. According to Wang and Daro (1998), the mostfrequent precipitating situationsare those involving child misbehavior, arguments, scape-goating,incessant crying, parental fatigue, and parental frustration. Implementing child mistreatment risk assessmentsystems: lessons from theory. Contributing ecological factors, according to Agathanos-Georgopoulou, include cultural traditions leading to child assault, maritaldiscord, problems associated with single parenting, and familycharacteristics (large families, unemployed parents, ignorance about childdevelopment).While many of these factors might be present in a family, the actualphysical abuse is almost always associated with the occurrence of some typeof precipitating situation. Social Work, 42(S), 515-524. Differentcultures can have differences in the degree to which they support any givenrisk factor (e.g., some cultures are more tolerant of corporal punishmentforchildren than other cultures). Thisreview of cross-cultural comparisons studies clearly showed that all ofthese factors have some contribution to abuse across diverse cultures. Another intervention which social workers can use is child advocacy, asocio-legal approach to prevention. Some authors advocate a holistic model of prevention and treatment.For example, Niemi (1998) reported excellent results from a programdeveloped in Finland, termed the Alvari Home Care Project. (1998). Early deterioration of the mother-child relation. Carinq,17(7), 56-57. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

Many of our Papers can be Downloaded From This Site!

PLEASE READ THIS, IT IS IMPORTANT!

Office hours are Monday through Friday, from 9 am to 5 pm (PST). You may place orders for custom research over the phone during office hours. E-mail requests can be made to our graduate and undergraduate department any time, and will be reviewed during office hours. You may also contact customer service any time through e-mail, and we will review your message during business hours. A great many papers can be downloaded right from this site, but not all of them. If you would like to know if a particular paper is downloadable, just look in the description for: "Available for Internet Download: Y" or "Available for Internet Download: N" If you wish to purchase a paper which is NOT available for immediate download, you will need to make other shipping arrangements. Also, please be aware that these orders are processed Monday through Friday from 9 am to 5 pm (PST). If you place your order after 4:45pm on Friday, it will not be processed until the following Monday morning. We charge $8 per page for all of our pre-written reports, plus shipping (and tax for California residents). However, the highest cost of any ONE report is $136, or 17 pages. Please, take a moment. Make sure you have chosen the report you want or need BEFORE you complete your order. If you are not sure, allow us to help you. We do not offer refunds or exchanges, so it is important for you to let us answer your questions during office hours. Reports which are e-mailed or downloaded are in Microsoft Word format. We are making more reports available for e-mail delivery faster than we can update our listings. Please call to check on the status of particular reports. There are many other shipping options which are listed on the Checkout page.