BOOT CAMPS AS ALTERNATIVE INCARCERATION.   Term Paper ID:26241 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Examines this concept & practice, effectiveness, pros & cons, dangers, history, examples, techniques, inmate selection criteria, recidivism, administration & supervision, goals, return of inmates to community.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Examines this concept & practice, effectiveness, pros & cons, dangers, history, examples, techniques, inmate selection criteria, recidivism, administration & supervision, goals, return of inmates to community. Paper Introduction: BOOT CAMPS AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO TRADITIONAL INCARCERATION Abstract This research reviewed the recent (1995 and later) literature relevant to the application of the boot camp prison concept in the United States. The objective of this review was to draw conclusions and make recommendations relative to the effectiveness of boot camp prisons and the desirability of continuing to fund boot camp prison programs. The success of intensive supervision in shock incarceration programs is indicative of a likelihood that the concept would work equally as well in conjunction with any corrections program. What success has been attained within the context of community reintegration, however, has been attributable largely to intensive post-release supervision, as opposed to par Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. In MacKenzie, D. In spite of the potentialbenefits of boot camp prison programs, "many psychologists who areexperienced in both corrections and behavioral change take this positionwhen examining boot camp programs. (1995, December). Second, a measure of the effectiveness of such programs is the reductionof the short-term rate of recidivism. Brame and MacKenzie (1996) foundthat: "Offenders who were supervised more intensively had higher positiveadjustment scores than offenders who were supervised at low levels ofintensity. Before leaving for 6: a.m. Spectrum: The Journal of StateGovernment, 68(3), 16-27. Thestricter Florida approach likely is the preferable approach to assuresuccessful community reintegration; however, the lower completion ratetarnishes the image of boot camps as a panacea for the recidivism problem.Further, there is evidence that the initial selection criteria in Floridais more restrictive than the criteria applied in other states. (1995, May). Furthermore, the recommended conditions necessary fortreatment to succeed are either difficult to define or to replicate inother sites" (Austin, 1996, p. Boulard, G. The impetus for shock incarceration programs has not, for the mostpart, come from corrections officials. That is,on average, positive adjustment increased with increasing supervisionintensity only up to about 2. Older, Caucasian, violent, or drug-related offenders with no priorarrest or conviction record whose current sentence resulted from a newcrime (rather than a technical violation) tend to have the greatestpotential for success in boot camp prison environments. Intermediate sanctions were designed with smallercaseloads enabling officers to provide both services and monitoring for newcriminal activity, but they never were given the resources needed toenforce the sanctions or provide necessary treatment. Are prisons really a bargain? Nevertheless, corrections officialsremain as stakeholders along with the judicial and politicalestablishments. Intensive supervision in the community corrections phase is moreimportant than participation in boot camp prisons in relation to successfuloffender readjustment to community life. Few people, however, either knowenough or care enough to learn the facts that would enable them to make anaccurate assessment of the likelihood that boot camp prisons can make ameaningful difference in the long-term behaviors of criminal offenders.This research reviews the recent (1995 and later) literature relevant tothe application of the boot camp prison concept in the United States. P., Jr. Consequently, many peoplehave leaped to the conclusion that boot camp prisons are a major part ofthe solution to rising recidivism rates in the United States. Recidivism research varies considerably in the operational definitionsof recidivism, the observed length of time at risk, and the analyticalprocedures used. In either case, many crimes committed by young people arethe work of repeat offenders" (Sautter, 1995, p. The intensive supervision program would involve theapplication of the concept of community-based corrections with intensivesupervision to all persons in custody. In actual fact, however, IQ was not considered as an interveningvariable in the first study, although an education variable was considered. Boot camp prisons emphasize on hard, physical work, personalresponsibility, and, in some cases, treatment of substance abuse andpsychological problems. Thesecharacteristics include (1) military drill and ceremony as a component ofthe program, (2) the separation the boot camp participants from generalprison population offenders, (3) the design of the program to cause it tobe an alternative to confinement, and (4) requiring offenders toparticipate in a rigorous daily schedule of hard labor and physicaltraining (MacKenzie, 1996). First, "although juvenile bootcamps have a rigorous daily schedule, they do not necessarily include hardlabor," as is true in relation to boot camp prisons for adult offenders(MacKenzie, 1996, p. Probationrevocation: A proportional hazards model of the conditioning effects ofsocial disadvantage. One of the advantages proclaimedadvantages of shock incarceration programs is that, through participationin such programs, offenders acquire a heightened sense of personalresponsibility, confidence, and self-discipline, all of which leads to thedevelopment of an increased ability to make a successful return to thecommunity (Washington & Bazemore, 1995). Education, however, is not necessarily compatible with IQ (MacKenzie andBrame, 1995).Community Reintegration of Boot Camp Graduates Research has found that shock incarceration parolees adjustsignificantly more positively during the community supervision phase thando other corrections sample groups. The results of thisreview are presented in the following discussions: (1) Boot Camps: AnHistorical Perspective; (2) Selection Criteria For Boot Camps; (3)Characteristics of Boot Camps; (4) Boot Camps: Goals and Objectives; (5)Boot Camps: Participation Success and Failure Rates; and (6) CommunityReintegration of Boot Camp Graduates.Boot Camps: An Historical Perspective In 1995, nearly five-million persons (2.2 percent of the adultpopulation of the United States) were under correctional supervision(Bureau of Criminal Justice Statistics, 1997). This result is consistent with what has beenobserved in other studies and suggests that supervision intensity may be akey factor in influencing offender activities during community supervision"(p. From the mid-197 s until around 1994, the rate of both violent crime and property crimein the United States escalated (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 1996).While the crime rate increased, and the demand for prison space increased,prison capacity remained relatively steady. These boot camp opponents fear that, even though someprograms may be used as early release mechanisms, most have a seriouspotential for widening the net. The effect of supervision intensity on positive adjustment,however, was nonlinear in Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina. The notion of a strict, military-style punishment as analternative to extended incarceration is an attractive one, on a number offronts: It appeals politically, because it promises both tough punishmentand the promise of financial savings through shortened sentences; itappeals to the citizenry, largely because of its noncompromising image ofrigorous discipline for offenders; it appeals to corrections administratorsby offering the opportunity to free up scarce correctional bedspace"(Travis, 1996, p. In the contemporary period, boot camp prisons are being widelyinstituted despite evidence that they are not successful interventions(Little, 1995). (1995). Hunzeker, D. Government Printing Office. 1 ). Since that beginning, "correctional boot camps, or shockincarceration programs, have mushroomed as an intermediate sanction, firstin State and then in the Federal prison systems, and more recently even incounty jails. Rather, such impetus has come fromjudges, governors, and legislators. Preface. Boot camp prison programs are a fact of life in American society.Many people look on the boot camp prisons as a solution to many of thecriminal problems facing the nation. Proceedings of the annual meeting of the American Society ofCriminology, Boston. There areless than 1 , offenders in these programs-a minuscule proportion of the1.5 million offenders in jail and prison today. "The current fad of boot camps has little scientific basis forsupporting them as a cost-effective alternative to incarceration. "Older, Caucasian, violent, or drug-related offenders with no priorarrest or conviction record whose current sentence resulted from a newcrime (rather than a technical violation)" tend to have the greatestpotential for success in boot camp prison environments (Brame & MacKenzie,1996, p. Shock incarceration dropouts adjust ina similar manner to probationers and parolees. (1995). Washington: National Instituteof Justice, pp. Juvenile crime, grown up time. Such was the hope for boot camp, or shockincarceration, programs in American prisons: that young, nonviolentoffenders could be diverted from a life outside the law using the sametactics successfully employed by the military to turn civilians intosoldiers. And further, they believe that the military atmosphere of bootcamp may actually enhance the effect of this treatment by keeping theoffenders physically and mentally healthy and enabling them to focus ontheir education, treatment, and therapy" (MacKenzie, 1996, p. The underlying basis of this measure is rehabilitation. A fourth recommendation is that intensive post-release supervision bemandated for all released offenders, regardless of the character of theirincarceration. Florida, however, terminates boot camp participationfor approximately 5 percent of those offenders selected for participation. MacKenzie (1996) reported also that, since prison boot camp programbegan to be initiated in 1983, "there has been an enormous growth in thenumber, type, and size of the programs. Another study estimated the effects of vocationaltraining as an intervention strategy. MacKenzie, D. Shock incarceration and positiveadjustment during community supervision. Third, a measure of theeffectiveness of such programs is the reduction of the long-term rate ofrecidivism. Initial reports both from offenders who have participated inthese programs and from the officials who administer them indicate that thenet effect of boot camps is positive" (p. 3-4. The intensive supervision program would involve theapplication of the concept of community-based corrections with intensivesupervision to all persons in custody. Second, while all bootcamp programs for adult offenders are considered to be alternative toconfinement, all boot camp prison programs for juveniles are not consideredto be an alternative to confinement. A crime control rationale forreinvesting in community corrections. The first prison boot camp prison programs began in Oklahoma andGeorgia. Washington: National Institute ofJustice, pp. G., & Loh, N. 3).Selection Criteria For Boot Camps During the last decade, many studies have identified variables relatedto corrections outcomes (Linster & Lattimore 1995; MacKenzie & Brame 1995). The bootcamp participants then march in military drill formation to strenuous workdetails such as ditch-digging, accompanied by the loud, angry demands fromthe corrections guards. Throwing away the key (and statemoney). They arguethat the stress created in boot camp may shake up the inmates and make themready to change and take advantage of the treatment and aftercare programsoffered. Juvenile boot camp prisons typically include confinement. The researchers also foundthat older prisoners and white prisoners were also more likely tosuccessfully complete the shock incarceration program. In every State where information was available onsupervision intensity, positive adjustment increased when supervisionintensity increased. MacKenzie (1996) noted that many corrections professionals approach toboot camp prison concept with a "'Machiavellian point of view.' Theseindividuals expect little direct benefit from the military atmosphere ofthe boot camp programs, but they are willing to use it to achieve two ends:early release for nonviolent offenders and additional funds for treatmentprograms (both within and outside prison). Shock incarceration, orthe prison boot camp concept, is one program developed to deal with theprogram (Bentayou, 1995). L., & Hebert, E. Since the mid-198 s, the prison populationhas continued to climb, however, at a slightly reduced rate. Much of the reports of success of boot camp prisons, however, areanecdotal in character. Austin, J. Although often not explicitly expressed, perhapsthe most significant difference among programs is in the philosophy uponwhich the program is based. L. Using a hazards model estimationprocedure, it was discovered that criminal history and the offender'scurrent commitment exerted the largest effect on the hazards function. Theresearcher suggested that the shorter time to failure for the juveniles whowere exposed to intensive supervision could be accounted for by either apossible larger percentage of tough juveniles in this group compared to thecontrol group or a "goldfish bowl" effect due to the closer surveillanceand thereby higher visibility of the juvenile's behavior in theexperimental group. Most boot camp prison programs target young, nonviolent offenders whodo not have an extensive past history of criminal activity for selection.The wide variations among boot camp prison programs with respect to thedefinitions of "past history" and "nonviolent," however, cause thisselection criteria to be flawed for general application. K9). Thus, while Florida claims a higher successful readjustment rate,far fewer participants complete the boot camp program in Florida. And, in the latter cases, a decisive factor is whetherthere is sufficient funding available to implement this plannedprogramming" (MacKenzie, 1996, p. C. They found offender's age, gender, and prior record to have significanteffects on each of the measures of probation failure, but the effects ofoffense type on probation success varied by the measure of success used. Sautter, R. Theobjective of this review is to draw conclusions and make recommendationsrelative to the effectiveness of boot camp prisons and the desirability ofcontinuing to fund boot camp prison programs. S. L., Brame, R., McDowall, D., & Souryal, C. First, although juvenile boot camps have a rigorous dailyschedule, they do not necessarily include hard labor, as is true inrelation to boot camp prisons for adult offenders. Little, S. Juvenile boot camp prisons typicallyinclude confinement. It is these anecdotal reports that have fueled thepopularity of boot camp prisons among politicians and the general public.Much of the research on boot camp prisons, however, has failed tosubstantiate the claims of success for this approach to criminalcorrections (O'Connell, 1995). 212-219. Approaches to criminal corrections such as boot camp prisons haveemerged as politicians, corrections officials, and ordinary citizens havebecome disenchanted with traditional approaches to criminal corrections.Brame and MacKenzie (1996) hold that boot camp prison programs have gainedpopularity "because of their unorthodox approach to customary correctionalmethods. Theresearcher suggested that the shorter time to failure for the juveniles whowere exposed to intensive supervision could be accounted for by either apossible larger percentage of tough juveniles in this group compared to thecontrol group or a "goldfish bowl" effect due to the closer surveillanceand thereby higher visibility of the juvenile's behavior in theexperimental group. 6). "One major difference among the many forms of boot camp programsis the amount of time in the daily schedule devoted to therapeutic andeducational activities in comparison to drill, ceremony, physical training,and work. Spectrum: The Journal of State Government, 69(2), 6-14. 4-9. Another study of the effect of intensive supervision on probationoutcomes for juveniles defined failure in terms of referral for either adelinquent offense or a status offense during the first year-and-a-half ofprogram implementation. Journal of QuantitativeCriminology, 11, 111-142. A follow-up study extended the analysis of intensive protectivesupervision for an additional two years. Bentayou, F. Another problem with boot camp prisons is that many psychologists andsociologists attempt to water-down the program content to make life easierfor the participants. Review of the Literature The recent literature relevant to the boot camp prison concept as ithas been applied in the United States is reviewed. The objective of this review was to draw conclusions and makerecommendations relative to the effectiveness of boot camp prisons and thedesirability of continuing to fund boot camp prison programs. (1995). These findings indicated thatjuveniles exposed to intensive supervision experienced a shorter time to astatus offense referral during the first one-and-a-half year period.Further, these findings from the extended observation period indicated thatexposure to intensive supervision significantly shortened the time tofailure, regardless of the offense type of the recidivism referral. As some degree ofwisdom is assumed to accrue with age, the age variable is understandable.No satisfactory explanation was provided by the researchers, however, forthe race variable. The underlying bases of this measureare deterrence and rehabilitation. Other studies investigated recidivism following some form oftreatment. 11).Boot Camps: Participation Success and Failure Rates Most studies find that offender's age, gender, ethnicity, prior arrestrecord, severity of the current offense and level of supervisionsignificantly influence time to probation failure. One researcher operationalized recidivism as time to a re-arrest orparole revocation after release and used the findings to develop apredictive profile of youthful offenders likely to fail, and who, thus,required higher levels of supervision. Travis, J. For the most part, these studiesfocus on young adult and juvenile offenders. Other researchers used a survival analysis to test theeffects of drug treatment on the length of time to a probation revocationover a thirty-three month follow-up period for drug-using probationers."The treatment effect was not significant, but the time to revocation wassignificantly less for African-American offenders and younger offenders"(Albonetti & Hepburn, 1997, p. The success of intensivesupervision in shock incarceration programs, however, is indicative of alikelihood that the concept would work equally as well in conjunction withany corrections program. L., & Leone, B. Differences existin the criteria for selection in relation to adult and juvenile boot campprisons. Since 1994, crime rates havemoderated slightly; however, the rate of incarceration has not slowed. The rate of participation termination in other states averages around 3 percent. Many people look on the boot camp prisons as a solution to manyof the criminal problems facing the nation. Spectrum:The Journal of State Government, 68(2), 51-66. A second recommendation, however, is that participation in suchprograms be limited strictly to first-time, non violent offenders. Such tampering with the program concept for bootcamp prisons defeats the intent of the corrections concept. E. The researchers appear to have missed a significant point of theirfindings. contacts per month. 228). MacKenzie, D. Inaddition, it was found that substance abuse and school problemssignificantly affected failure time. Foreword. Linster, R. Parks & Recreation, 3 (2), 2 -26. Conclusions Intensive corrections supervision is effectively limited toparticipants in shock incarceration programs. A follow-up study extended the analysis of intensive protectivesupervision for an additional two years. 22). And, the differences between control and experimentalsubjects in their recidivism rates were minimal (5 to 1 percent) ornonexistent. Importantly, the researchers reported that the recidivism rate wasvirtually the same for all groups of prisoners studied. Georgia'sshock-incarceration units are a model, as they were among the first suchprograms. This reliance on a military atmosphere still provokescontroversy over boot camp programs, with proponents arguing that the rigiddiscipline promotes positive behavior and opponents arguing that it is aharmfully negative influence" p. Considering the high proportion of non-whites in theprison population, this issue is significant. The key measures of the effectiveness of prison boot camp programs andother corrections programs must be related to the commission of crime.First, therefore, a measure of the effectiveness of such programs is thereduction of the overall crime rate. The use ofvoodoo economics. Spectrum: The Journal of State Government, 68(1), 28-31. Social Problems, 44(1), 124-138. (1995, Summer). To be useful, boot camp prisons could be used with thegreatest effect to reduce the recidivism rate among first-time, non violentoffenders. Boot camp prison program tend to differ from one another in a numberof ways. Bootcamp prisons and recidivism in eight states. One such study used a proportional hazards model to study theeffect of prison industry program participation on felony arrests followingrelease. State Legislatures,21(1 ), 24-27. (1996, Spring). Manyof these studies estimate the relationship between recidivism and offendercharacteristics such as gender, age, race, and prior record (Broadhurst &Lob 1995). Brame, R., & MacKenzie, D. Criminology, 33, 327-357. They believe that the potential dangersof the military models are too great to compromise for early release orfunds for treatment. MacKenzie, D. Today, boot camps for adult felonsexist in most States and in the Federal Bureau of Prisons. (1995, January). A typical day for inmates starts at 5: a.m., standing atattention outside their cells. E.Boot camps: A tough intermediate sanction. Rated inmate capacities are being exceeded in almost all jailsand both federal and state prisons. breakfast,cells must be immaculate, shoes at right angles to footlockers. L., & Brame, R. Bureau of Criminal Justice Statistics, U.S. Most boot camp prison programs target young, nonviolent offenders whodo not have an extensive past history of criminal activity for selection.The wide variations among boot camp prison programs with respect to thedefinitions of "past history" and "nonviolent," however, cause thisselection criteria to be flawed for general application.Characteristics of Boot Camps Criminal corrections programs are classified as boot camp programswhen they incorporate several specific characteristics. "In addition, violent youths have a 7 % recidivism rate, although somestudies indicate that graduates of the boot camps seem to have just a 5 %recidivism rate. L., & Lattimore, P. These findings were obtained even after controlling for thesignificant negative effect on time to failure of a contextual measure ofoverall revocation rate in the estimated hazards model. Neither family problems nor priorviolent behavior significantly influenced time to re-arrest. (1995). On weekends, participants rarely leave theircells (Hunzeker, 1995). Others emphasize rehabilitation through therapeutic treatment oracademic education. Other differences include such factors as how offenders areselected for the program (by the court, by the department of corrections),the type of therapeutic programming, emphasis on the military aspect, theuse of summary punishments, and the type of aftercare and supervisionavailable after release. Do such programs deter other from the commission of crimes? More directly, it is very difficult to change offenders whohave experienced a lifetime of abuse and neglect by their parents,community and society in a six to 12 month long poorly administeredprogram" (Austin, 1996, p. (1997, February). Washington: National Institute of Justice, pp. (1996). Broadhurst, R. Petersilia, J. Federal Bureau of Investigation. There is littleevidence, however, that indicates that treatment interventionssignificantly affect either the likelihood of failure or the time tofailure. (1996). Intensive supervision programs are not effective for high-riskoffenders, and are more expensive than routine probation and apparentlyprovide no greater guarantees for public safety. Intensive Supervision without treatment and support services tend tobe ineffective. Washington, C., & Bazemore, G. Ordinary least squares regression analyses foundthat offender's gender, age, race, and prior record significantly affectedthe probability of a referral for a subsequent delinquent act, but not fora status offense; and that males assigned to intensive supervision weremore successful than those assigned to regular probation supervision. References Albonetti, C. The researchers also notedthat, while IQ was a factor that explained some of the variations ofadjustment in one of their two studies, that it was not a factor in theother. Brame and MacKenzie (1996) concluded that: "The effect of supervisionintensity is clearer. In MacKenzie, D. (1996). Recommendations One recommendation is that the boot camp prison program concept beretained. Standing up to violence. Program participation time, however, produced no suchpositive effect. StateLegislatures, 21(5), 14-19. Bootcamps: A tough intermediate sanction. While boot camp prisons have a great potential, however, the conceptalso had serious drawbacks. Department of Justice(1997). Thus, the researchers wereforced to admit that it was likely more intense supervision, as opposed tothe shock incarceration, that accounted for the superior adjustment of theshock parolees to community supervision. Dosuch programs lead to reductions in the recidivism rate in the post-corrections period? (1995, February). 222). R. Government Printing Office. Uniform crime reports.Washington: U.S. Further, the law enforcement establishment and the generalpublic are also important stakeholders (Petersilia, 1995). The boot camp prison experience in Florida claims that successfulparticipants to readjust to community life at a substantially higher ratethan do either non-participants or participants who fail to complete theboot camp program. L. E. Correctional agencies areoften ill-equipped to design and implement effective treatment programs.They often target the wrong population and do not deliver services aspromised. Similarly, it is logical to assume that those individuals withhigher IQs and who think that they exercise some control over their ownlives would be the prisoners who would be able to see the benefits incompleting the shock incarceration program. Thus, more contactbetween offender and correctional officials appears to lead to moresuccessful adjustment in the community, at least during communitysupervision. One analysis of the offender characteristics affecting time to re-arrest found that the average time to recidivism was shorter for minoritygroup members, younger offenders, single offenders, less educatedoffenders, and offenders with a record of prior convictions for seriousoffenses. Some emphasize military training, physicaltraining, and hard labor and focus on a deterrent-type model of changinginmates. The released person's military service, age at prison admission,prior record and time served produced significant effects on time to afelony re-arrest. Shock incarceration and positiveadjustment during community supervision: A multisite evaluation. Differences exist in the criteria for selection in relationto adult and juvenile boot camp prisons. The essence of the major problem confronting criminal corrections inthe United States is the unacceptably high recidivism rate among theoffenders who are processed through the system. Boot camp prisons emphasize on hard, physical work, personalresponsibility, and, in some cases, treatment of substance abuse andpsychological problems. Recidivism studies tend to fall into several broad categories. The effect of supervisionintensity was significant, however, as were the effects of ethnicity, age,prior record, and offense type. (1995). Do such programs lead to reductions inthe recidivism rate during the corrections period? From the mid-197 s through the mid-198 s, the American prisonpopulation increased by 84 percent. Much of this research estimated the direct effects of offender andincident offense characteristics on probation outcomes, while other studiesexplored the effect of some intervention or treatment on recidivism rates.Few studies examined the effect of both offender characteristics and thedeterrent effect of treatment on the time to a probation failure, and nonelooked at the conditioning effect of the offender's social disadvantage onthe effects of select offender characteristics and treatment interventionon recidivism. It is these anecdotal reports that have fueled thepopularity of boot camp prisons among politicians and the general public.Much of the research on boot camp prisons, however, has failed tosubstantiate the claims of success for this approach to criminalcorrections. By the end of boot camp, the young recruithas become a different person. 5). When the courtordered offenders to participate in drug treatment, for example, manyprobation and parole officers could not ensure compliance because localtreatment programs were unavailable" (Petersilia, 1995, p. Programs focusing onoffender rehabilitation are working, while those that only monitor anoffender in the community are not working. "Well designed and administered correctional treatment programs likeboot camps, drug treatment, and vocational training efforts are morefrequently the exception rather than the rule. Although this effect was nonlinear in three of thefour States, the general effect was decidedly positive. The problem, however, is that intensivesupervision in conjunction with shock incarceration programs has notproduced any positive effects on the long-term recidivism rate. A thirdrecommendation is that participation in boot camp prison programs beterminated quickly for those participants who do not adhere to the rulesimposed by corrections officials. Analysis of the Literature The literature indicates that the boot camp prison concept hasdefinite potential as a partial solution to the problem of recidivism. (1995, Winter). Rearrest probabilities for the1984-1993 apprehended western Australian population: A survival analysis.Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 11, 289-313. The so called 'programintegrity' is often weak and may well explain the absence of strongtreatment effects for many treatment programs. Oneeffect of the interaction of these trends has been a shift in the prisonpopulation toward a much higher proportion of violent crime offenders. Second, while all boot camp programs for adultoffenders are considered to be alternative to confinement, all boot campprison programs for juveniles are not considered to be an alternative toconfinement. The underlying basis of this measureis deterrence. The prison boot camp alternative to traditional corrections involvesthe placing of qualifying offenders in a military basic training typesituation for a limited time period during which participants receiveintensive disciplinary training, along with rehabilitative and self-esteemservices. A more important goal, however, is improvedrehabilitation, because improved rehabilitation leads to a reduction in therecidivism rate, which, in turn, will lead to a reduction in system costs.A third goal of such programs is the reduction of overcrowding in prisons.The essential goals and objectives of shock incarceration, thus, aredeterrence, rehabilitation, punishment, incapacitation, reduced crowding,and reduced costs. The success of intensive supervision in shock incarceration programsis indicative of a likelihood that the concept would work equally as wellin conjunction with any corrections program. 4). In the evening, participants are allowed to watch3 minutes of television, as long as the program is either the evening newsor an educational program. Others fear the dangers of boot camps. Per 1 thousand population, theincrease was from 129 to 216. Summary Much of the reports of success of boot camp prisons, however, areanecdotal in character. Overall, surveillance-oriented programs (boot camps, shockincarceration, and intensive supervision) have not reduced cost,overcrowding or recidivism. Such programs for high-risk offenders are not associated with fewer crimes or lower costs thanroutine parole. Forthe correctional officers responsible for the administration of prisons,and the maintenance of prisoner welfare, the increase in the proportion ofviolent offenders housed in the nation's correctional facilities hascreated a nightmarish situation with respect to control, preservation oforder, and maintenance of safety for both prisoners and prison staff.Governmental jurisdictions at all levels, thus, either must find ways toincrease prison and jail capacity or new policies must be implemented toameliorate the situation. The level of supervision is, quite obviously, the keyfactor in the determination of the adjustment of prisoners to communitysupervision, and it is, thus, a waste of time to dwell on how things wouldbe in the absence of the impact of the level of supervision. When the level of supervision was controlled, the researchers foundthat shock incarceration parolees adjusted no more positively to communitysupervision than did the other sample groups. (1996). (1995, Spring). 5). Correctional populations in the United States, 1995, Washington:U.S. The new recruit is told when tosleep, when to get up, when to eat; he marches with his fellows everywherehe goes, to meals, to training; orders must be obeyed instantly; personalliberty is almost nonexistent. Statistical basis for amanagement information system/model-based risk classification system forprobationers. Boot camps: A tough intermediatesanction. 222-231. InMacKenzie, D. Theprison boot camp alternative to traditional corrections involves theplacing of qualifying offenders in a military basic training type situationfor a limited time period during which participants receive intensivedisciplinary training, along with rehabilitative and self-esteem services.If participants do not complete the boot camp phase of the programsuccessfully, they are placed in regular prison. Research on recreation in correctionalsettings. In their opinion, thepopularity of the boot camps with policymakers and the public allowscorrections to obtain early release and treatment that would not otherwisebe available to these offenders" (Brame & MacKenzie, 1996, p. MacKenzie (1996) observed that: "In the military, boot camp representsan abrupt, often shocking transition to a new way of life. These findings, however,were unadjusted for the level of supervision. A., & Hepburn, J. L. A fourth recommendation is that intensive post-release supervision bemandated for all released offenders, regardless of the character of theirincarceration. These and other drugtreatment programs tend to be more expensive than traditionalincarceration. Charting the future ofthe juvenile justice system: Reinventing mission and management. 226). Researchers have found that the variables most strongly associatedwith the successful completion of the community supervision phase of theshock incarceration program are IQ, locus of control, and prison termlength. L., & Hebert, E. 126). What's tough enough. 7).Boot Camps: Goals and Objectives One objective of shock incarceration and other alternative approachesto deal with offender corrections is the reduction of system costs(Bentayou, 1995). These findings were obtained even after controlling for thesignificant negative effect on time to failure of a contextual measure ofoverall revocation rate in the estimated hazards model. Crime and criminals. Discipline isstrict; there is an emphasis on hard work, physical training, andunquestioning obedience to authority. 5). O'Connell, J. One analysis of the offender characteristics affecting time to re-arrest found that the average time to recidivism was shorter for minoritygroup members, younger offenders, single offenders, less educatedoffenders, and offenders with a record of prior convictions for seriousoffenses. These findings indicated thatjuveniles exposed to intensive supervision experienced a shorter time to astatus offense referral during the first one-and-a-half year period.Further, these findings from the extended observation period indicated thatexposure to intensive supervision significantly shortened the time tofailure, regardless of the offense type of the recidivism referral. Another study of the effect of intensive supervision on probationoutcomes for juveniles defined failure in terms of referral for either adelinquent offense or a status offense during the first year-and-a-half ofprogram implementation. Offenders on intensive supervision who also receive counseling,employment services, pay restitution and perform community service havelower rates of recidivism than those supervised under general probation.Intensive supervision coupled with substance abuse treatment is twice assuccessful as parole supervision alone. A study of 14 intensive supervision programs nationallyconcluded that more supervision without a substantive treatment componenthas little effect on offenders' criminal behavior. InLouisiana, the effect of supervision intensity as measured by the threesupervision intensity indexes was linear, with heightened supervisionintensity associated with more successful adjustment, consistent with theresults in the other States" (p. Whatsuccess has been attained within the context of community reintegration,however, has been attributable largely to intensive post-releasesupervision, as opposed to participation in boot camp prison programs. What success has beenattained within the context of community reintegration, however, has beenattributable largely to intensive post-release supervision, as opposed toparticipation in boot camp prison programs. Personswho have worked in drug treatment programs-where strict rules, discipline,and confrontational interactions are common-seem to be more comfortablewith the military model. While they acknowledge that controlling for the level ofsupervision eliminates any significant differences between shockincarceration parolees and the other three sample groups, they continue toemphasize that such differences do exist when the level of supervision isnot considered. Ordinary least squares regression analyses foundthat offender's gender, age, race, and prior record significantly affectedthe probability of a referral for a subsequent delinquent act, but not fora status offense; and that males assigned to intensive supervision weremore successful than those assigned to regular probation supervision. And, of course, many of those responsible for thedevelopment and implementation of individual boot camp programs arecommitted to and believe in the viability of this approach. Thus, regardlessof how well the researchers contended that shock incarceration paroleesadjusted to community supervision when the level of supervision was notcontrolled, the fact remains that the end outcome is virtually the same forall prisoners. Of this total number, wellin excess of one-and-one-half million were incarcerated. The most serious drawback is that the conceptlikely is truly effective only for first-time offenders whose offense wasnot violent. Boot camp prisons also attempt to provideparticipants with the tools required for readjustment to community life.This adjustment includes finding and maintaining employment, havingresidential and financial stability, attending drug treatment andcounseling, making use of educational and vocational trainingopportunities, and avoiding behaviors that may lead to re-arrest and afailure to meet conditions of community supervision (Brame & MacKenzie,1996). San Diego,California: Greenhaven Press, Inc., pp. Further, the researchers foundthat intervening variables offered no additional explanations of anydifferences between the four sample groups when the level of supervisionwas controlled. L., & Hebert, E. If participants do not complete the boot camp phase of theprogram successfully, they are placed in regular prison. One recommendation is that the boot camp prison program concept beretained. Again, thisapproach likely will lead to greater success rates, but far fewer offenderswill participate in the boot camp program. As one of the shock incarceration program studies by theresearchers required prisoners entering shock incarceration programs tocomplete their sentences in ordinary prisons upon leaving the shockincarceration program, it is quite an understandable motivation forprisoners with longer sentences to attempt to successfully complete theshock incarceration program as a means of minimizing their time in ordinaryprisons. Monthly contacts beyondthat point did not, except in extreme cases (beyond the 9 th percentile ofsupervision intensity), lead to higher levels of positive adjustment. Introduction Over the past two decades, shock incarceration, or boot camp programs,have become popular among politicians and citizens alike as a potentialmeans of reducing recidivism rates and returning convicted felonssuccessfully to community life. Supporters of the boot camp prison concept, however, argue "that themilitary atmosphere is an effective model for changing offenders. The results may indicate that the heightened 'legal coercion'associated with more intensive supervision achieves some desirable outcomesin offender adjustment. A thirdrecommendation is that participation in boot camp prison programs beterminated quickly for those participants who do not adhere to the rulesimposed by corrections officials. Prison boot camps may not reform young offenders.In Bender, D. 229). Upon successfulcompletion of the boot camp prison program, however, participants areplaced in a community-based corrections program and placed under intensivesupervision (Boulard, 1995). Boot camp prisons also attempt to provideparticipants with the tools required for readjustment to community life.This adjustment includes finding and maintaining employment, havingresidential and financial stability, attending drug treatment andcounseling, making use of educational and vocational trainingopportunities, and avoiding behaviors that may lead to re-arrest and afailure to meet conditions of community supervision. One approach several states have tried is to commit first-timeoffenders of serious crimes to three months of so-called shockincarceration in place of several years of traditional prison. In addition,many local prisons or jails have either begun or are considering startingboot camp programs for their offender populations; some facilities offerboot camp programs for women, and boot camps for juvenile delinquents havestarted to become popular" (p. (1995). 223). In another study,MacKenzie and Brame (1995), applied a positive adjustment index based onthe offender's participation in one or more of ten different positiveactivities as a measure of corrections outcome, and, again, concluded thatshock incarceration had little effect on corrections success during thefirst year following release from custody. In an effort to develop a risk classification system for correctionsinmates, Linster and Lattimore (1995) applied three measures of failure-revocation for a new arrest, revocation for a technical violation, andissuance of an absconder warrant, and used a survival time analysis toobserve failure over a four-year period following release from confinement. Furthermore, substantial numbers of offenders are not motivatedto change. Boot Camps As An Alternative to Traditional Incarceration Abstract This research reviewed the recent (1995 and later) literature relevantto the application of the boot camp prison concept in the United States.The objective of this review was to draw conclusions and makerecommendations relative to the effectiveness of boot camp prisons and thedesirability of continuing to fund boot camp prison programs. A second recommendation, however, is that participation in suchprograms be limited strictly to first-time, non violent offenders. The Florida boot camp prisons,thus, are more successful than most others, but the low rates of offenderparticipation assures that the impact of boot camp prisons on recidivismamong offenders in Florida will be minimal. This research reviewed the recent (1995 and later) literaturerelevant to the application of the boot camp prison concept in the UnitedStates. MacKenzie, Brame, McDowall, & Souryal, 1995) measuredrecidivism in terms of both probation revocation and re-arrest duringtwelve months (in some states) or twenty-four months (in other states)following release, and found that exposure to shock incarceration, comparedwith more traditional sentences of either probation or prison, did notresult in significant differences in recidivism. Using a survival model of time to re-arrest, this analysis investigated both the probability of re-arrest andthe length of time to re-arrest over a two-year observation period, findingthat the vocational training program produced lower rates of re-arrest foryoung males. Others focus on evaluating the deterrent effect of some form ofintervention, such as intensive supervision, shock incarceration (boot campprisons), counseling, or drug monitoring. Furthermore, they argue that boot camps cannotprovide a mechanism for treatment because many of the characteristics ofthe programs (confrontation, punishment instead of reward) are antitheticalto treatment. Boot camp prison programs, however, are a fact of life in Americansociety. There is no difference in outcomes between those offendersgiven shock incarceration (short sentences in jail/prison before servingprobation) and those who go directly to probation. This point is particularly critical forthe newly developing juvenile programs" (MacKenzie, 1996, p. Few people, however, eitherknow enough or care enough to learn the facts that would enable them tomake an accurate assessment of the likelihood that boot camp prisons canmake a meaningful difference in the long-term behaviors of criminaloffenders. "The program models were good and could haveworked, except for one critical factor: they were usually implementedwithout creating an organizational capacity to ensure compliance with thecourt-ordered conditions. Upon successfulcompletion of the boot camp prison program, however, participants areplaced in a community-based corrections program and placed under intensivesupervision. Of this 1.5million, two-thirds were in prisons, while one-third was in jail.Approximately 6 , were on parole, and approximately 2.8 million were onprobation. Phi DeltaKappan, 76(5), K1-K12. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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