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Paper Abstract: Definitions, research design, scholarly standards, types, applications, methods (quality & quantity), validity & reliability. Paper Introduction: EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Introduction Methods and procedures applied in educational research are reviewed. Principles of research, research design, research approach and research requirements, quantitative and qualitative methods, and validity and reliability issues are addressed. Principles of Research Three types of definition are relevant to scientific inquiry. First, an ostensive definition is any process by which a person is taught to understand a word other than by the use of other words. Ostensive definitions are particularly useful in exploratory research, when concepts are being developed. Second, verbal definitions are used in scientific inquiry to explain concepts in terms of other concepts (Emory, 1993, p. 30). Such definition Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Asan example, the acceptance of a null hypothesis (or the inability to rejecta null hypothesis) in statistical inference analysis which indicated thatstudent performance likely would be below state-mandated performance levelsalso typically would be associated with a decision not to implement theprogram being evaluated. EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Introduction Methods and procedures applied in educational research are reviewed.Principles of research, research design, research approach and researchrequirements, quantitative and qualitative methods, and validity andreliability issues are addressed. Aquantitative variable is one than can be measured numerically (a studenttest score, as an example), while a qualitative variable is non numeric,such as gender or ethnic group (Pfaffenberger & Patterson, 1991, p. Research Design A research design, first of all, is a plan that specifies the sourcesand types of information relevant to the research question to beinvestigated (Emory, 1993, p. (1991). Pfaffenberger, R. Data analysis: a. (1988). (3rd ed.). Third, operationaldefinitions extend the level of abstraction, by defining a concept "interms of specific testing criteria or operations" (Emory, 1993, p. 1 4). Formal: An extensive review of relevant literature isrequired in the conduct of formal scholarly research. A research design, thus, is a master planspecifying methods and procedures, and an action framework for the work tobe performed (Zigmund, 1992, p. Statistical methodsfor business and economics. 132-136). (1992). A qualitative evaluator for whom the control of governmentalspending is of paramount importance would likely conclude that the 69thpercentile level is acceptable under the specified conditions. Once again consider the desire to measure the heightof a group of elementary school students in feet and inches. To illustrate these points, consider, again, the case of theinstrument calibrated in feet and inches which may be used to measure theheight of a group of individuals. Application of results: a. 4. Validity refers to the extent towhich data or a data collection instrument measures what it is actuallydesired to measure (Bartz, 1993, pp. Ameasurement procedure is, thus, reliable to the extent that it suppliesconsistent results. To attain this purpose, the experimental researchermust be able to manipulate potentially causal variables, in order to assesstheir relative impacts on outcomes. b. Probability is a number expressingthe likelihood of occurrence of a specific event. These differencesare as follows: As a group, the formal approaches to scholarly research differ fromboth action research and causal research in 1 areas. Theory, in scientific inquiry, is, in effect, a descriptiveexplanation of how something works-an explanation of the interrelatedactions within a system. Summary Methods and procedures applied in educational research were reviewed.Principles of research, research design, research approach and researchrequirements, quantitative and qualitative methods, and validity andreliability issues were addressed. The principal techniquesof statistical inference are interval estimation and hypothesis testing(Ott, 1993, p. Qualitative variables may also be analyzed in conjunction withquantitative variables through an application of the quantitative procedureanalysis of variance. b. The reliability of a data collection procedure is a contributor to thevalidity of that procedure, rather than the other way around (Bartz, 1993,pp. Formal: The testing of measurement procedures andinstruments is required prior to their use in a study. c. Descriptive statistics describe the performance or activity of onegroup or class, without attempting to make generalizations about othergroups or classes. The validity of this measuring instrument calibrated in feet andinches would be determined on the basis of its ability to accuratelymeasure feet and inches in accordance with an external standard, such as amaster measurement instrument maintained by the National Bureau ofStandards. Causal: In causal scholarly research, the researchdesign is limited to planned procedures in quite general terms. M., & McAllister, R.(1993). This fact, however, doesnot mean that the philosophical orientation of historical research isseated in the past. S., & Armstrong, C. Hypotheses: a. In scientific inquiry, a proposition is a statement "about conceptswhich may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena.When a proposition is formulated for empirical testing we call it ahypothesis" (Emory, 1993, pp. Validity and Reliability To accomplish the objective of validity in measurement, it isnecessary to have some standard which is external to the measurementprocedure, in order to evaluate the validity of the procedure (Bartz, 1993,pp. Causal: The results of causal scholarly research areapplicable to the local situation. (3rd ed.). Formal: The results of formal scholarly research aregeneralizable. 83). 8. If, however,this identical time-after-time measurement is not in agreement with thatyielded by a previously validated external standard, the reliableinstrument is not a valid instrument. c. Research methods. Action: The results of action scholarly research areapplicable to the local situation. Research Approach and Research Requirements As a group, the formal approaches to scholarly research differ fromboth action research and causal research in 1 areas. Chicago: TheDryden Press. Basicstatistics in business and economics. Qualitative dataoften may be analyzed in conjunction with quantitative data through theapplication of non parametric quantitative procedures, such as chi square.In such analyses, the quantitative distributions of qualitative variablesform either the columns or the rows in a chi square matrix. b. 47). These three ways are as follows: 1. Formal: In formal scholarly research, the researchdesign is carefully planned and followed to the maximum possible extent.Control of extraneous variables is an important feature of the researchdesign. E. (6th ed.). While hypotheses may be derived from observedfacts, they may also be deduced from theory (Emory, 1993, p. b. It is with respect to samples and their characteristics, and their use in hypothesis testing,that the central limit theorem and central tendency measures are important(Bartz, 1988, pp. The understanding attained through the conduct ofhistorical research can save scarce time and money in the conduct ofexperimental research. Experimental design: a. Quantitative methods are used to infer causes or futureevents (Ott, 1993, pp. Causal: In causal scholarly research, specifichypotheses are not established. Causal: The goal of causal scholarly research is toeffect changes in current procedures that appear likely to improve anexisting situation. 51-66, 15 -151). This orientation does not mean that the experimental approach isalien to the historical approach. Ott, L. (4th ed.). 367-379). If the instrument does not measure theheight of the same individual as being the same in measurement-after-measurement, it is not a reliable measurement instrument; and, if theinstrument does not measure the height of the same individual as being thesame in measurement-after-measurement, the instrument, obviously, does notalways yield results which are in agreement with the external standard,such as a master instrument maintained by the National Bureau of Standards. Action: Simple analytical procedures are employed, andthe subjective opinion of researchers are often weighted heavily. Ininferential statistical applications, probability is largely a function ofsampling, as well as of relationships, because it is usually not feasible,or even possible, to measure an entire population. Second, verbal definitions are used in scientificinquiry to explain concepts in terms of other concepts (Emory, 1993, p.3 ). First,an ostensive definition is any process by which a person is taught tounderstand a word other than by the use of other words. Reliability refers to theaccuracy and precision of a of data collection procedure. The basictheoretical principle upon which inferential statistics are based isprobability (Bartz, 1988, pp. Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Research data may be evaluated through the application of eitherquantitative or qualitative analytical procedures. Such definitions involve the use of words of approximately the samelevel of abstraction to assure that verbal definitions will aid in theunderstanding of the concept being explained. b. Quantitative methods are used to describe events (Ott, 1993,p. Such research is practical and directly relevant to an actual situation inthe working world. Thus, hypothesistesting is applied to sample data in inferential statistical applications. Formal: Extensive training is required in measurement,statistics, and research methods. References Bartz, A. c. Zigmund, W. Therefore, it can easily be seenthat reliability in an instrument is required before that instrument can beconsidered to be valid, but that reliability in an instrument cannot,alone, guarantee that such instrument will be valid. 19).Quantitative data are produced by ordinal, interval, and ratio scales,while qualitative data are produced by nominal scales (Bartz, 1988, pp. W. Quantitative methods are used in three general ways in the conduct ofeducational research. An introduction to statistical methods and dataanalysis. B. New York:Macmillan Publishing Company. Secondly, a research design is astrategy that specifies the approach that will be used in collecting andanalyzing the necessary data. Experimental research, by contrast with historicalresearch, draws its data from contemporary events. b. Objective and rigorous historicalresearch can provide the basis upon which a valuable research experimentmay be designed. London: Croom Helm Publishers. 5. 9. The establishment of statistical significance is emphasized. Causal research seeks to identify possible cause andeffect relationships by observing some existing outcome, and searchingbackward through relevant data for possible causal factors. There are several approaches to the conduct of research that may bespecified in the research design. (1994). Causal: Problems are identified in local situationswhere difficulties or inefficiencies are being experienced. Actionresearch seeks to develop new skills or new approaches to problem solution. (4thed.). Homewood, Illinois:Dow-Jones/Irwin. Singleton, R., Straits, B. Quantitative methods are used to enhance the decision makingprocess (Ott, 1993, pp. (5th ed.). 7-14). 125). 3. Measurement: a. c. C., & Patterson, J. The data employed in the conduct of historicalresearch is necessarily drawn from past events. b. b. Problem identification: a. Thus, the reliability andvalidity of data collected for use in statistical analysis is of paramountimportance (Bartz, 1993, pp. G. W., Peters, W. The goal ofexperimental research is to establish direct cause and effect links betweenactions and outcomes. Qualitative evaluative criteria, however, may also be appliedto quantitative data. 37). Action: An abbreviated review of relevant literature isrequired in the conduct of action scholarly research at a level sufficientto provide the researcher with a general understanding of the area to bestudied. Ostensivedefinitions are particularly useful in exploratory research, when conceptsare being developed. On the other hand, if an instrument doesmeasure the height of the same individual as being the same in measurement-after-measurement, the instrument is a reliable instrument. Essentially, the choice between probability levels of Type I (Alpha)and Type II (Beta) errors is the basis on which the relative importance oftwo alternative types of mistakes are assessed in hypothesis testing instatistical inference analysis (Cohen & Manion, 1994, p. 367-379). 367-379). H. 2. One of the more widely applied forms of formal scholarly research ishistorical research. Action: Available subjects are used in action scholarlyresearch. The philosophical orientation of historical research, thus, is notsolely in the past, present, or the future. Action: The goals of action scholarly research are toobtain knowledge that may be applied directly to a local situation. C., Straits, M. (3rd ed.). Formal scholarly research encompasses (1) historical research,(2) descriptive research, (3) developmental research, (4) case and fieldstudies, (5) correlational research, (6) true experimental research, and(7) quasi-experimental research (Cohen & Manion, 1994, pp. An understanding of past events provides theinvestigator with the basis for developing a perspective from which toconsider current practices and future developments. These differencesare as follows: 1. 376-379). 9-12). 42-43). In otherinstances, the quantitative distributions of qualitative variables may formboth the columns and the rows of a chi square matrix. 97). Boston: PWS-Kent Publishing Company. A case might be made in such an instance that, toincrease the score mean, an increase in governmental spending would berequired. Principles of Research Three types of definition are relevant to scientific inquiry. Formal: Problem identification in formal scholarlyresearch occurs through the application of a wide range of methods.Researchers are required to understand the nature of the problem, but arenot required to be directly involved with the problem situation. 1-3). Research goals: a. Causal: No literature review is required in the conductof causal scholarly research. Hypothesis testing falls in the realm of inferential statistics(Singleton, Straits, Straits, & McAllister, 1993, p. AQualitative evaluation of the result, however, would depend upon thenormative evaluative criteria applied, because a qualitative evaluation isa subjective evaluation. Summers, G. 31).Such criteria must have empirical referents. High levels ofvalidity and reliability are sought in measurement of data. It is, rather, directed to thepast to develop conclusions, as a means of being better able to understandthe present, and of being better prepared to plan for the future.Philosophically, historical research determines what has happened, and,based upon interpretation and inference, draws conclusions from past eventswhich are relevant to both the present and the future. Cohen, L., & Manion, L. Hypotheses are declarativestatements that are both tentative and conjectural in character.Hypotheses may be both descriptive and relational in form. c. c. 7. (1993). The central limit theorem holds thatthe totals (and therefore the means) of random samples will be normallydistributed no matter what the distribution in the population is like,provided only that the samples are large enough. Reliability, as opposed to validity, is concerned with the accuracyand precision of a measurement procedure (Bartz, 1993, pp. Research methods in education. This enhanced understanding forms a basisfrom which the investigator can both evaluate current events, and planfuture actions. Causal: Subjective opinion of the researcher istypically the primary analytical criterion. For use in inferentialstatistics, this probability must be statistically independent. 32-33). Qualitative data also may be analyzed through the application ofeither quantitative or qualitative analytical procedures. c. Bycontrast, a qualitative evaluator for whom optimal student performance wasa primary goal would likely conclude that a 69th percentile level wasunacceptable regardless of the specified conditions. Operational definitions alsomust state what phenomena will be observed and how such observation will beperformed. Emory, C. Approaches to social research. In suchanalysis, decision procedures are based entirely on the analysis of datacollected through a random sampling of the total population. 1 ). Although statistical inference techniques aredirectly concerned with estimating values or with the testing of hypothesesconcerning population parameters, the results of these procedures arerelated to alternative courses of action or to alternative decisions. (4th ed.). Therefore, in this example, because the measuring instrument is notreliable, it cannot be valid. These conclusions drawn from the findings of historicalresearch provide the investigator with an enhanced understanding of aproblem, procedure, or process. New York: OxfordUniversity Press. c. Handbook in research andevaluation. (1993). Action: Validity and reliability in measurement aresought; however, evaluation measures are less rigorous than those in formalresearch. P. Causal: No training is required. Quantitative data are most often subjected to quantitative analysis,which means that such data are analyzed through the application ofstatistical procedures such as regression and correlation analysis.Quantitative analytical procedures provide a positivist result, i.e., aspecific quantitative relationship between two or more variables isestablished. b. Another widely applied form of formal scholarly research isexperimental research. Literature review: a. Exploring research. 6. Quantitative approachesare more easily defined than are qualitative procedures, becausequalitative research may refer to either the way data are measured or theway such data are evaluated (Summers, Peters, & Armstrong, 1994, p. (2nd ed.). The philosophical orientation of experimental research is theestablishment of cause and effect relationships between actions andoutputs. Therefore, the central limit theorem assumes ahigh-level of importance in hypothesis testing. Historical research tends to tie together the past,present, and future. Sampling: a. Inferential statistics permit the findingswith respect to one set of relationships to be extended to otherrelationships and to generalize findings and conclusions on the basis ofstatistical inference. In the case of the measurement oftendencies toward abnormal behavior in individuals, an instrument, to beconsidered as reliable, would have to provide consistent scores for thesame individuals within a short-span of time when those individuals wereboth tested and re-tested with the instrument. Suppose that it was found that a mean standardizedtest score at the 69th percentile level was associated with specifiedlevels of resource application per student. 1 -15). Decision theory used in conjunction withstatistics provides administrators, managers, professionals, researchers,and others with knowledge about events and relationships that reduce thelevel of uncertainty in the data, thereby improving the quality ofdecisions. c. (1994). Formal: Random or equivalent procedures are employed toeliminate bias to the extent possible from the research sample in formalscholarly research. Causal: No effort is usually made to observe a researchsample in causal scholarly research. Inscientific inquiry, theory provides a basis for the narrowing of the bodyof facts that must be studied to investigate a problem. Researcher training requirements: a. Causal: No special efforts are made to assure thevalidity and reliability of measurements. 7). Further, an instrument cannot be valid if it is not alsoreliable; however, just because it is reliable, it is not, of necessity,valid. Isaac, S., & Michael, W. Action: Limited training is required in statistics andresearch methods. 376-379). Basic statistical concepts. 2. Action: In action scholarly research, the generaloutline of the research design is prepared prior to commencing a study;however, changes in research design are made as the study progresses, whenit appears that such changes will lead to an improvement in the situationbeing studied. Thus, if it were desired to measure the height of a group ofelementary school students in terms of feet and inches, it would benecessary to have a measuring instrument which was calibrated in feet andinches. Formal: In formal scholarly research, highly specifichypotheses must be developed, and such hypotheses must include operationaldefinitions and be testable. In most instances whereinferential statistics are applied in hypothesis testing, populationdistributions are unknown. An instrument designed to measure some psychologicalcharacteristic or factor would have to be evaluated in the context ofvalidity on the basis of its ability to yield results consistent with thoseof another instrument whose validity has previously been established.Thus, if an instrument were designed to provide a measurement of a tendencytoward abnormal behavior, the measurements provided by the instrument wouldhave to be consistent with those of other instruments of proven reliabilityin the measurement of tendencies toward abnormal behavior. Validity, thus,is the extent to which differences found through a particular datacollection procedure reflect true differences among those variables beingmeasured. Theinstrument calibrated in feet and inches would be considered to bereliable, if it yielded consistent results in the measurement time-and-time-again of the same group of individuals. Action: Problems are identified in local situationswhere difficulties or inefficiencies are being experienced. Action: In action scholarly research, a specific problemstatement serves as the hypothesis. Scholarly research may be classifiedbroadly as (1) formal, (2) action, and (3) causal (Isaac & Michael, 1992,pp. Inference is among the most important of the uses made of quantitativemethods. The quality of any statistical analysis can be only as good as is thequality of the data upon which it is based. In analysis of variance applications, thequalitative variables provide explanations of the sources of variationamong the quantitative variables. 3. Formal: Complex and comprehensive quantitativeanalytical procedures are employed to assure the generalizability ofresults. Belmont, California:Wadsworth Publishing Company. 1 . San Diego, California: EdITS Publishers. (1991). Formal: The goals of formal scholarly research are toobtain knowledge that may be generalized to a broad population, and todevelop and test theories. Homewood, Illinois: Richard D.Irwin, Inc. The quantitative investigatorwould present the positivist result without a value judgment. c. Strictly speaking, historical research systematically and objectivelylocates evidence, evaluates that evidence for relevance with respect to theproblem at hand, and synthesizes the relevant evidence into factualfindings, from which, in turn, are drawn conclusions relative to pastperformance. b. Theory alsosuggests the most productive approaches to the investigation of a problem.Lastly, theory summarizes what is already known about a problem. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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