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Essay Subject: Demographics, theories on causes, psychoactive aspects, types, diagnosis, socioeconomic issues.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Demographics, theories on causes, psychoactive aspects, types, diagnosis, socioeconomic issues. Paper Introduction: EFFECTS OF SOCIAL CLASS ON DIAGNOSES OF ALCOHOLISM Introduction In contemporary American society, the "use of certain substances to modify mood or behavior under certain circumstances is generally regarded as normal and appropriate. Such use includes recreational drinking of alcohol, in which a majority of adult Americans participate . . ." (American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p. 165). Problems for most people develop when "maladaptive behavioral changes associated with the more or less regular use of psychoactive substances that affect the central nervous system" appear (p. 165). Alcohol abuse and dependence, however, frequently is under diagnosed in the United States (Larson, 1991, p. 107). Many factors contribute Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. D. Thealcoholism diagnoses of clinicians aware of these associations likely wouldbe affected by such associations. Hallberg, H., & Mattsson, B. Duffy, J., & Kreitman, N. Physicians also may beuncertain about the diagnosis of alcoholism. Perceptions ofthe expected behaviors of individuals consuming alcohol tend to varyaccording to the gender of the individual whose behaviors are subjected tospeculation (Blume, 1991, p. I., & Sadock, B. Much of the general perception ofexpected behavior related to the consumption of alcohol conflicts withactual outcomes (George & Norris, 1991, pp. The diversity of factors involved inthese associations, however, dictates against the association of alcoholismwith a particular social class, although a larger proportion of lowersocial class persons than higher social class persons likely arecharacterized by these factors. Alcohol is the most widely abuse chemical substance (Sandahl &Ronnberg, 199 , pp. Dixon, W. The essential feature of Psychoactive Substance Dependence is anindication that a "person has impaired control of psychoactive substanceuse and continues use of the substance despite adverse consequences"(American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p. Psychoactive Substance Abuse denotes "maladaptive patterns ofpsychoactive substance use that have never met the criteria for dependencefor that particular class of substance. 757-766) found that social class was nota useful predictor of alcoholism in a patient. EFFECTS OF SOCIAL CLASS ON DIAGNOSES OF ALCOHOLISM Introduction In contemporary American society, the "use of certain substances tomodify mood or behavior under certain circumstances is generally regardedas normal and appropriate. Alcohol portrayals and alcohol advertising ontelevision. Duffy and Kreitman (1993, pp. Alcohol abuse isreported more often for Medicaid recipients and persons with low income.One could hold that this outcome reflects the impact of a patient's socialclass on the diagnosis of alcoholism. 165). Other physicians deny that aproblem exists because they are themselves alcoholic. (1987, May). (1993, September). 331-336). mild,moderate, and severe" (p. Alcoholism: the disease and thediagnosis. 133-138). 139). The two species of alcoholism are prevalent. American Family Physician, 44(3), 9 7-917. Journal of CounselingPsychology, 38, 51-56. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 27(4),198-2 2. 387). Previous Research Most previous research has emphasized the demographic variablesassociated with problem drinking, as opposed to the actual impact of apatient's social class on a diagnosis of alcoholism (Rush & Brennan, 199 ,p. The effects of alcohol on humans is known tovary from person to person, as well as on the same person at differenttimes and under different circumstances. Factor analysis of the substance abuse attitudesurvey with college undergraduates. Gelberg, L., & Leake, B. In this specie ofalcoholism, a person "with alcoholism is not aware of a lack of control: heor she must drink a given quantity of alcohol every day, but there is nocompulsion to exceed that amount. Is the health profile of problemdrinkers different from that of other patients? H., & Norris, J. 341-347).Further, a multiplicity of causes is required to explain the development ofalcoholism by some individuals (Engs, 199 , pp. (1992, August).Prevalence and demographic correlates of alcohol-related problems inJapanese employees. 9 7-916) found that therate of alcoholism in women does vary according social class. Assessment of the Issue Research results are mixed on the question of the effect of apatient's social class on a diagnosis of alcoholism (Ahlstrom, 1994, pp.211-221). Most "adults in the United States are light drinkers. Societalprejudice against the alcoholic is another factor. Washington: American PsychiatricAssociation. International Journalof Group Psychotherapy, 4 (4), 453-476. 544-547). C. 166). 166). 452-547). Journal of Family Practice,31(1), 42-46. A second conclusion drawn, however, is that many cliniciansto allow a patient's social class to influence their diagnoses ofalcoholism. J. 173). One factorthat has been associated with variations in diagnosing alcoholism is socialclass (Barthwell, 1995, p. American Psychiatric Association. 51-56). DSM-IV. This research examines the effect thatthe social class of the patient hay have on a diagnosis of alcoholism. (199 , October). J. Variations in drinking norms bysubculture and demography. Psychological Reports, 66, 331-336. Considering that 35 percent of adults in the United Statesabstain from alcohol consumption, thus, 6.5 percent of American adultsconsume 5 percent of all alcohol consumed, and most such individuals aremales in the 21-34 age group. (1991). (199 ). G. The divergence ofactual behaviors and expected behaviors frequently contributes to thedevelopment of undesirable social outcomes (Garcia & Kushnier, 1987, pp.252-256). (1991). Engs, R. Family background of alcohol abuse and itsrelationship to alcohol consumption among college students. (1995). . Alcoholism is frequently categorized by specie (American PsychiatricAssociation, 1994, p. Many factors contribute tothe explanation for the under diagnosis of alcoholism, and the combinationof factors may vary according to both patient and clinician. Jenkins, S. Medical Care, 31(9), 757-766. The person may not recognize that he orshe has an alcohol problem until, for some reason, he or she has to stopdrinking and develops withdrawal symptoms" (American PsychiatricAssociation, 1994, p. 173). Brief group psychotherapyin relapse prevention for alcohol dependent patients. The maladaptive pattern isindicated by either (1) continued use of the psychoactive substance despiteknowledge of having a persistent or recurrent social, occupational,psychological, or physical problem that is caused or exacerbated by the useof the substance or (2) recurrent use of the substance in situations whenuse is physically hazardous" (American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p.169). W. Gearhart, J. The causes of the abuse of controlledsubstances have been classified into four principal categories of theories(Kaplan & Sadock, 1993, pp. (1991, September). Therefore, one may expect the social class of patient to at leastcause a clinician to suspect that a diagnosis of alcoholism should beconsidered in relation to persons in lower social classes. Barthwell, A. Males are two-to-five times more likely than are females to beheavy drinkers, regardless of age group. (199 ). (1991). Among the many effects that maybe experienced are decreased cognitive performance, loss of control,serious social problems and anxieties, and a variety of psychologicalproblems, including depression (Dixon, 1991, pp. Alcoholism in this study was associated with socialclass. Risk factors for suicide andundetermined death among inpatient alcoholics in Scotland. 173). Problems for most peopledevelop when "maladaptive behavioral changes associated with the more orless regular use of psychoactive substances that affect the central nervoussystem" appear (p. 1 7). Premature deaths amongmen in a Swedish municipality-social characteristics prior to death.Scandinavian Journal of Social medicine, 19(3), 181-186. These four categories of theory areas follows: learning theories, which hold that individuals learn to usechemical substances as a means of coping--a use which eventually becomes anaddiction; physiological theories, which variously hold that nutritionaldeficiencies and genetics lead to chemical substance abuse; psychoanalytictheories, which variously hold that childhood experiences, self destructivedrives, feelings of inferiority and insecurity, and locus of controlorientations lead to chemical substance abuse; and sociological theories,which hold that societal conditions lead some individuals into chemicalsubstance abuse (Jenkins, 199 , pp. The first specie, often referred to as gammaalcoholism, is characteristic of most alcohol dependency and alcohol abuseamong persons who are active in Alcoholics Anonymous, and is commonly foundin the United States. Grube, J. (1994, Summer). A. (1994). Sandahl, C., & Ronnberg, S. Contrary toother research reported in the literature, however, this study found thatpoor women were less likely to be alcoholic than were better off women.Kawakami, Haratani, Hemmi, and Araki (1992, pp. 173). Gearhart, Beebe, Milhorn, and Meeks (1991, pp. The second specie of alcoholism characterizes the alcohol dependencyand alcohol abuse frequently found in France. 173).For all adults, "1 % of drinkers consume 5 % of the total alcohol consumed"(p. T. Kaplan, H. 173). Substance use amongimpoverished medical patients: the effect of housing status and otherfactors. Pardeck, J. K., Milhorn, H. George, W. Such use includes recreational drinking ofalcohol, in which a majority of adult Americans participate . Hallberg and Mattsson (1991, pp. 61-66). (1993). Baltimore: The Williams & Wilkins Co. The prevalence of drinking ishighest and abstention lowest for both females and males in the 21-34 agerange. Alcoholism in the family: A multiculturalexploration. (1991). Three main patterns of chronic alcohol abuse or dependency arerecognized (American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p. Conclusion Based on the findings of this research, one conclusion drawn is thatthe relationship between social class and alcoholism is characterized bytoo much variation for a social class variable to be useful as a predictorof alcoholism. A physician maynot record a diagnosis of alcohol abuse for a patient to avoid thepatient's anger or shame, because of the physician's own ambivalence, or toavoid insurance problems. Addiction,88(6), 757-766. . B. (1993). Alcohol abuse is recognized by physicians in only one third ofhospitalized patients who tested positive for alcoholism using twoestablished screening tests (Larson, 1991, pp. Contemporary Drug Problems, 21(2), 211-221. 165). Frequent alcohol users also weremore likely to be sexually active, have had suicidal thoughts, a previouspsychiatric hospitalization or felony conviction, an accident or injury,and poor physical health. This type of alcoholism involves problems withcontrol; "once the person with gamma alcoholism begins to drink, he or sheis unable to stop until poor health or depleted financial resources preventfurther drinking. All of these theories havesome degree of validity. 42). (1991, August). I., & Meeks, R. It is a mistake to associate one of these particular patternsexclusively with 'alcoholism'" (p. Alcoholism in women. 1 7-1 9). ."(American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p. Journal ofStudies on Alcohol, 51, 542-547. (1991,September). Alcohol Health & Research World,15(2), 133-138. Alternatively, however, the abuse ofalcohol could be proportionately higher among lower income people thanamong persons in higher income brackets. American Journal of Medicine, 91(2), 1 7-1 9. Nevertheless, neitherfully describes "the pattern of drinking seen in most people with AlcoholAbuse or Dependence in the United States" (American PsychiatricAssociation, 1994, p. 181-186) reported that higheralcoholism rates are prevalent among unskilled manual workers than amongself-employed persons. Alcohol abuse and dependence, however, frequently is under diagnosedin the United States (Larson, 1991, p. W. The prevalence of heavy drinkingamong adults decreases with age; "only 7% of males and 2% of females areconsidered heavy drinkers" among persons aged 65 years or older (p. (1993, June). 173). Some physicians may think they are protecting apatient from discomfort by not dealing with the problem. Recent Developments in Alcoholism, 12, 387-4 7. Substance dependence is"conceptualized as having different degrees of severity . Rush, B., & Brennan, M. 173). Sexuality and stigma. Alcohol, disinhibition, sexualarousal, and deviant sexual behavior. Larson, E. Sexual inferences aboutfemale targets. Comprehensive textbook ofpsychiatry/VII. T., & Kushnier, K. . Garcia, L. References Ahlstrom, S. A multiple regression analysis of familyfactors affecting the potential for alcoholism in college students.Adolescence, 26, 341-347. Once the 'bender' is terminated, however, the person isable to abstain from alcohol for varying lengths of time" (p. (199 , July). 198-2 2), as an example,found that alcoholism was more prevalent among the less educated. Some of the theories apply to some individuals insome circumstances, while they do not apply to other individuals or even tothe same individuals in other circumstances (Pardeck, 1991, pp. The consumption of alcohol is widely linked in American society withhighly valued social attributes (Grube, 1993, pp. Alcohol Health & ResearchWorld, 15(2), 139-146. Gelberg and Leake (1993, pp. Kawakami, N., Haratani, T., Hemmi, T., & Araki, S. The firstpattern involves the daily intake of large quantities of alcohol, while thesecond pattern involves regular heavy drinking that is limited to theweekends, and the third pattern is characterized by long periods ofsobriety interspersed with "binges of heavy drinking lasting for weeks ormonths. Diagnostic and statisticalmanual of mental disorders. 757-766) found that frequent alcohol usewas associated with being homeless, male, less educated, a veteran,unemployed, and having more children. 173). Self-reported use of illegal drugs wasassociated with being younger, American born, never married, having a poormood, and a mental health problem or substance use by a parent. Problem-solving appraisal, stress, hopelessness,and suicide ideation in a college population. About 35%abstain, 55% drink fewer that three alcoholic drinks a week, and only 11%consume an average of one ounce or more of alcohol a day" (AmericanPsychiatric Association, 1994, p. 453-476). Journal of Sexual Research, 23(2), 252-256. Blume, S. This finding, however, doesnot mean necessarily that a clinician's diagnosis will not be affected bythe social class of a patient. Alcohol Health & Research World, 17(1), 61-66. G., Beebe, D. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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