ADAMS, JOHN, FOREIGN POLICY.   Term Paper ID:22661 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Assesses second president's approaches to & effect of domestic policy on XYZ Affair, quasi-naval war with France, alliances, military expansion, more.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Assesses second president's approaches to & effect of domestic policy on XYZ Affair, quasi-naval war with France, alliances, military expansion, more. Paper Introduction: THE FOREIGN POLICY OF JOHN ADAMS: THE EFFECT OF DOMESTIC POLITICS ON THE RESOLUTION OF THE XYZ AFFAIR, THE QUASI NAVAL WAR WITH FRANCE, AND OTHER SIGNIFICANT ISSUES Introduction This research examines the foreign policy of John Adams, second President of the United States (1797-1801). The specific focus of this examination is on the effect of domestic politics on specific issues related to foreign policy. The foreign policy-related issues addressed are the naval build-up, the establishment of a standing army, funding for the military expansion, the abridgment of the Franco-American Alliance, enactment of the Alien and Sedition Acts and the Logan Act, alliance with England, the decision not to declare war against France, an Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. The President also considered that the key to greatness for theUnited States "lay in establishing equal and free trade with allnations."[2 ] Adams, thus, was determined to resist French efforts tointerfere with American shipping with counter force if required; however,the President also wanted to avoid war if possible. In spite of the troubles with France, Adams regarded suchconflict within the United States as damaging to the health of the Americansociety. In fact, Neustadt stated that what is good for the presidentis good for the country, and that the reverse is also true. The Debates in the Several State Conventions as Recommended by the General Convention at Philadelphia in 1787, Together with the Journal of the Federal Convention, 2nd ed. Martin'sPress, 1987), 357. New York: W. J. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1951.Miller, J. A. F. The controversial part of this act, however, wasthe provision that made it a misdemeanor punishable by fine or imprisonmentto either speak or write against the President or the Congress with eitheran intent to defame the institutions or to subject the institutions tocontempt or disrepute. "John Adams' Classical Conception of the Executive." Presidential Studies Quarterly 17 (1987): 365-382.Morison, S. [3] Leckie, 224. [27] Miller, 213. Both the Alien Act and the Sedition Act were related closely tosimilar British laws.[34] The Alien Act was copies to a great extent fromcomparable British legislation, while major sections of the Sedition Actadhere to either or both British common law and British statutes of theday. Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of A PartyIdeology (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1978), 252. "The Election of 18 : Alexander Hamilton and the Death of the Federalist Party." New England Journal of History 49 (1992- 1993): 26-4 .Leckie, R. London: Collier Macmillan Publishers, 1981.----------------------- [1] D. In the Quasi Naval War,many of the French vessels that attacked American shipping were in factAmerican vessels manned by American seamen which operated out ofCharleston, South Carolina.[16] French agents funded the activities ofAmericans preying on Americans. Miller, The Federalist Era: 1789-18 1 (New York: Harper &Brothers, 196 ), 211. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 1955.Hamilton, A. [58] Dahl, 11. Butterfield, (Ed.), The Diary andAutobiography of John Adams II (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MassachusettsHistorical Society, 1961), 389. [48] Shaw, 252. In Butterfield, L. Enforcement of the Sedition Act by the AdamsAdministration, however, equated political opposition with sedition. "Correspondence Between John Adams and William Cunningham." Massachusetts Historical Society Collections 5th Ser., V, 45.Miroff, B. [42] Letter to William Cunningham, "Correspondence Between John Adamsand William Cunningham," Massachusetts Historical Society Collections 5thSer., V, 45. John Adams perceived that the path for a successful futurefor the United States lay in free and open trade with other countries.This goal is widely accepted in the 199 s and continues to be pursued byall presidential administrations, although the carping detractors of such apolicy also remain a part of American society. While this news was welcomed by theRepublicans, the Congress recognized that the United States governmentcould be undermined if private negotiations between American citizens andforeign government were permitted to continue. Douglas, Rebels and Democrats (Chapel Hill, North Carolina:University of North Carolina Press, 1955), viii. Quoted in Earle, E. Hendrickson, Hamilton II (New York: Mason/Charter, 1976), 441. Hamilton II. By contrast, the so-called high or extreme Federalists led byAlexander Hamilton viewed the dispute with France as an opportunity for theUnited States as a nation to extend its power internationally, and asopportunity for the Federalists to strengthen the role of the federalgovernment in domestic American political affairs. [14] P. The foreign policy-related issues addressed arethe naval build-up, the establishment of a standing army, funding for themilitary expansion, the abridgment of the Franco-American Alliance,enactment of the Alien and Sedition Acts and the Logan Act, alliance withEngland, the decision not to declare war against France, and the settlementof the dispute with France. The Republicans had dispatched Dr. George Logan, a Quaker, to Paris onan unofficial and unauthorized mission to explore the possibilities for apeaceful settlement of the issues between the United States and France.[41] Logan returned to the United States with the news that peace with Francewas not only possible, but that the French government were desirous of asettlement between the two countries. The aspects ofthe domestic American politics of the time that are emphasized in thisexamination are the conflict between the so-called high or extremeFederalists and President Adams, the rivalry between Adams and AlexanderHamilton, the conflict between the Federalists and the Republicans, theopposition of Adams to partisan politics, and the nationalistic goals ofJohn Adams. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Historical Society, 1961) 389.Donovan, F. Accordingly, the Logan Actwas passed in 1799 to inflict a fine or imprisonment on any Americancitizen found guilty of holding correspondence with foreign governments orthe agents of such governments in relation to the official business of theUnited States government.[42] This law remains in effect in 1995. Martin's Press, 1987.McDonald, F. "Seditious Aliens and native 'Seditionists.'" Supreme Court Historical Society Yearbook (1984): 12-19.Withey, L. Williamsburg, Virginia: Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1976.Smith, P. The Adams Federalists. Morison, The Oxford History of the American People, Vol. M. Therefore, a central feature of the American political systemis the development of a set of checks and balances. The Congress authorized expansion of the United States Army from astrength of 3,5 to a force size of 13,5 at once, with the creation of a5 , man army over the longer term.[24] George Washington was persuadedto return as commander of the United States Army. The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of A Party Ideology. Adams did neither of these things. C. Dauer, The Adams Federalists (Baltimore: The Johns HopkinsPress, 1953), 157. H. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1953.Diary entry. The Character of John Adams. W.Norton & Company, 1982), 338. BibliographyBanning, B. [19] Schachner, 376. S. [55] A. [51] Neustadt, 26. [9] J. In the wake of the American response to the XYZ Affair, Talleyrand hadMonsieur X deliver a message to the American commission.[14] The messagewas to the effect that Minister Talleyrand was personally friendly towardthe United States, but that two other members of the Directory currentlygoverning France found part of President Adams' speech on the XYZ Affair tobe offensive, and demanded that the President's language be softened. The Republicans viewed the actions of France in the Quasi naval War asjustified in response to actions by the Federalist government in the UnitedStates that were unfriendly toward France.[17] By contrast, the Federalistposition was that the post-Revolutionary French government posed a threatto the independence of the United States. [2 ] P. "Correspondence Between John Adams and John Winthrop. [38] Morison, 75. E. The specific focus of thisexamination is on the effect of domestic politics on specific issuesrelated to foreign policy. [18] F. Rohrs, "The Federalist party and the Convention of 18 ,"Diplomatic History 12 (1988): 237-26 . The Oxford History of the American People, Vol. President Adams was largely ineffective early on in the pursuit of hisforeign policy objectives with respect to France because he refused torecognize and deal with the domestic partisan political character of theissue.[44] The President's chief adversary, Alexander Hamilton, wasequally ineffective in his opposition to the Adams policy initiativebecause of his efforts to undermine the Adams re-election campaign. [44] R. Adams had long opposedoffering the French any special favors not offered to all trading partners,and this position earned him the scorn of the Jefferson-ledRepublicans.[21] At the time of the Quasi Naval War, Adams said of therelationship between France and the United States that: "Our business withthem and theirs with us, is commerce, not politics, much less war."[22] The situation escalated in the wake of the XYZ disclosures, withFrance refusing to receive American emissaries, while the language inofficial French pronouncements regarding the United States became bothtruculent and threatening.[23] President Adams responded by stating thatwould not submit to such indignities, but nevertheless would attempt tomaintain the policy of neutrality between the British and the French.Modern historical revelations support the position taken by Adams and theFederalists, as French intentions to acquire both Florida and Western NorthAmerican were real even if the French resolve was not strong. Appleton-Century Company, Inc., 1946.Shaw, P. (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1941), 2 3. The Presidency of John Adams. M. Sosnowski, and V. Hamilton, quoted in J. [4 ] Brown, 58. The war that erupted between France andGreat Britain in 1794 resulted to some extent into divisions within theAmerican population between supporters of France and backers of theBritish.[2] By 1797, the French Revolution had been completed, and GreatBritain, Russia, and the United States were the only major nations that hadnot established normal relations with the new French government. Dahl, A Preface to Democratic Theory (Chicago: TheUniversity of Chicago Press, 1956), 7. [53] Neustadt, 17 . [39] Brown, 122. E. [49] Dauer, 35-38. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1965.Douglas, E. New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1968.Levin, P. [12] R. Levin, Abigail Adams: A Biography (New York: St. "The Federalist party and the Convention of 18 ." Diplomatic History 12 (1988): 237-26 .Schachner, N. [4] N. New York: Random House, 195 .Miller, J. E. Brown, The Presidency of John Adams (Lawrence, Kansas: TheUniversity of Kansas Press, 1975), 31. Alexander Hamilton used the press to arouse theAmerican public against the French.[4] In response to the French naval attack on American merchant ships,President Adams dispatched a mission to Paris in an effort to resolve thesituation.[5] The American mission was received coolly by the FrenchForeign Minister Talleyrand, who sent three minor officials to meet withthe American mission. C. L. Both the Quasi Naval War and the XYZ Affairwere addressed within the contexts of the foregoing topics. Appropriation of the funds necessary for the military and navalexpansion were requested by President Adams.[26] The appropriation in 1798of the funds required for the military and naval expansion was justified onthe grounds of the monetary losses being suffered by American shipping atthe hands of the French navy.[27] The Republicans opposed theappropriations; however, public opinion supported the Federalists on thisissue. The centraltheme of Madisonian political theory holds that, if unrestrained byexternal checks, any given individual or group of individuals willtyrannize over others. [5 ] R. Many future presidents wouldhave been wiser had they followed the Adams precedent. [21] Letter to John Winthrop 23 June 1776, "Correspondence BetweenJohn Adams and John Winthrop, Massachusetts Historical Society Collections5th Ser., IV, 3 9. A. Alexander Hamilton: A Biography. [24] Morison, 74. Neustadt, Presidential Power (New York: John Wiley & Sons,Inc., 196 ), 18 -19 . Tyranny was defined by Madison bystating that "the accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, andjudiciary, in the same hands, whether of one, a few, or many, may be justlypronounced the very definition of tyranny."[52] In this context,Neustadt's theory of the presidency holds that presidents can do littlethrough direct commands for action, but that they can, do, and should wieldenormous power through the process of bargaining and persuasion.[53] ThisMadisonian principle implied than an absence of external checks within apolitical system would inevitably lead to the development of tyranny withinthe system. It was in this atmosphere that the French war fleet began attackingAmerican merchant ships.[3] Within the United States, the Republicans, whosupported the French against the English, also supported the French attackson American shipping. C. Holbrook-DeFeo, "The Election of 18 : Alexander Hamilton andthe Death of the Federalist Party," New England Journal of History 49 (1992-1993): 26-4 . Adamscertainly did not entertain such a notion. Under the Adams policy, Americanwarships were authorized to capture armed French vessels wherever theymight be found. "Bitter Farewells: Francophobia and the French Émigré in America." Proceedings of the Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 175 -185 21 (1992): 276-283, 294-297.Stansbury, D. The Decision Not to Declare War Against France, and the Making Peace With France The British were successful in containing the French forces in Egypt,and the French soon lost interest in pursuing the quasi naval war with theUnited States.[36] As a consequence, the French policy toward the UnitedStates became one of conciliation, and there was no need for the UnitedStates to declare war against France. The Question of An Alliance With England, and The Mission to France The Quasi Naval War with France (1798-18 ) was precipitated by Frenchire over what the French perceived to be an alliance between the UnitedStates and Great Britain.[1] The quasi war, however, never developedbeyond maritime commerce raiding and the protection of shipping involvingwarship-on-warship armed conflict. Stansbury, "The Quasi-War With France," Naval History 6(1992): 16-21. [52] J. Two(New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), 73. Quoted in Elliot, J. Elliot, (Ed.), The Debates in theSeveral State Conventions as Recommended by the General Convention atPhiladelphia in 1787, Together with the Journal of the Federal Convention,2nd ed. (Ed.). This law passed in the Adams Administration, although modified,remains the law in the 199 s. Later, however, public opinion tended to shift.[28] Once the XYZAffair was out of the public focus, the taxes levied for the military andnaval build-up remained, and these taxes were highly unpopular.Nevertheless, in the Spring of 1798, John Adams enjoyed his highest levelsof public popularity.[29] The Alien and Sedition Acts and the Logan Act The Alien and Sedition Acts actually were two acts--the Alien Act andthe Sedition Act.[3 ] The acts were passed as a part of the Federalistvenom against the French and against Americans who did not share toFederalist perceptions of France. The specific focus of thisexamination was on the effect of domestic politics on specific issuesrelated to foreign policy. L. There were approximately two-dozenprosecutions under the acts. Adams viewed the presidency as an office independent of the partisanpolitics of the Congress.[49] His perception of the office was that thePresident should not be involved in partisan political squabbling. "The Sources of Presidential Power: John Adams and the Challenge to Executive Primacy." Political Science Quarterly 1 1 (1986): 6 1-616.Letter to John Winthrop 23 June 1776. Neustadt's theory of the presidency is based on the acquisition andwielding of power by the individual occupying the office of thepresident.[5 ] Neustadt's theory of the presidency posits that thepresident has both a right and an obligation to continually seek to expandthe powers of the presidency. [34] M. Both the Quasi Naval War and the XYZ Affairare addressed within the contexts of the foregoing topics. Thedisunity of the Federalist Party also created problems for the ratificationof the peace treaty with France. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1956.Dauer, M. Schachner, Alexander Hamilton (New York: D. Massachusetts Historical Society Collections 5th Ser, IV, 3 9.Letter to William Cunningham. E. Lawrence, Kansas: The University of Kansas Press, 1975.Dahl, R. [28] Donovan, 281. M. Dearest Friend: A Life of Abigail Adams. S. Thus, when the Frenchbecame conciliatory toward the United States, the Hamilton camp within theFederalist Party attacked the gestures as insincere, and recommendedrejection together with a declaration of war by the United States againstFrance. Prior to the build-up of the American navy, the AdamsAdministration arranged for the British fleet to protect American merchantshipping from the French.[6] This action cemented the French perceptionthat the Americans had entered into an alliance with the British. I (New York: Harper & Row,Publishers, 1968), 223-224. The acts were strongly opposed by theRepublicans led by Thomas Jefferson. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1941.Hendrickson, R. Presidential Power. [43] Miller, 224. [22] Diary entry, in L. The Federalists (the precursors of modern dayRepublicans in the United States) were realist and empiricist, and theFederalists mistrusted the general citizenry.[31] The Republicans (to whommodern day Democrats trace their origins) were idealist and rationalist,and the Republicans tended to put too great a trust in the people. McDonald, Alexander Hamilton: A Biography (New York: W. Even George Washington publicly favored a declaration of waragainst France.[39] The Federalists, however, were not united, and thuswere unsuccessful in attempts to pass a declaration of war against Francein the Congress.[4 ] On 7 July 1798, however, President Adams did signinto law an act of Congress abrogating all existing treaties between Franceand the United States. Thepresident has this right because, according to Neustadt, the Constitutiondid not divide powers on the basis of one branch, one function, but,rather, created "separate institutions sharing power."[51] This approachto presidential power, according to Neustadt, prevents one branch fromgaining enough power to dominate another branch; thus, preserving libertyby precluding arbitrary rule from any single power center in thegovernment. Alexander Hamilton .New York: D. Actual expansion of theArmy, however, did not exceed the 6,5 man level. Shaw, The Character of John Adams (Williamsburg, Virginia:Institute of Early American History and Culture, 1976), 142. I. [33] J. The Federalist. Abridgment of the Franco-American Alliance The XYZ Affair generated a strong anti-French sentiment among thegeneral public in the United States.[7] Public knowledge of the incidentalso led to broad-based public support for the foreign policy position ofthe Adams Administration towards France. The Adams camp within the Federalist Party held that the Americanobjectives in the tiff with France should be to protect American shipping,and to force the French government to respect the United States.[35] WhileAdams was willing to risk war to attain these objectives, the Presidenthoped to avoid war, and to put an end to the affair as quickly as waspossible. Neustadt's theory of thepresidency occupies somewhat of a middle ground between the Madisonian andHamiltonian conceptions, as it preserves the republican concept of accedingto power, while exalting those presidents who ambitiously seek and wieldthe power of the office.[59] Neustadt's theory of the presidency advocates a strong presidency, andholds that it is best for the country if a president maximizes the power ofthe office.[6 ] John Adams did not share this perception of thepresidency. [7] T. [17] Morison, 71. [57] E. Rather, Hamilton thought that a constitutional monarchicalpolitical structure would serve that purpose best.[58] Adams stronglyopposed Hamilton's imperialist notions. The aspects ofthe domestic American politics of the time that were emphasized in thisexamination were the conflict between the so-called high or extremeFederalists and President Adams, the rivalry between Adams and AlexanderHamilton, the conflict between the Federalists and the Republicans, theopposition of Adams to partisan politics, and the nationalistic goals ofJohn Adams. Adams nominated George Washington to becommander-in-chief of the soon to be expanded army.[25] Washington quicklyaccepted. [1 ] Leckie, 224. [25] P. [32] Morison, 77. [59] Neustadt, 185. The anti-French feelingsdeteriorated into the violent harassment of refugees from the FrenchRevolution who had fled to the United States.[8] In actuality, however,the Americans did not so much oppose the concept of the bribe as theyopposed the idea of paying before some negotiated agreement had beenfulfilled.[9] News of the XYZ Affair came as a blow to the Republicans in the UnitedStates, and led to the rallying cry among the Federalists of "Millions fordefense but not one cent for tribute."[1 ] The armed neutrality policyposition of the Adams Administration which gains great public support inthe wake of the XYZ Affair was tantamount to the declaration by the UnitedStates of a naval war with France. Madison, quoted in E. The foreign policy-related issues addressedwere the naval build-up, the establishment of a standing army, funding forthe military expansion, the abridgment of the Franco-American Alliance,enactment of the Alien and Sedition Acts and the Logan Act, alliance withEngland, the decision not to declare war against France, and the settlementof the dispute with France. W. [54] R. Smith, John Adams (Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company,Inc., 1962), 953. [3 ] W. Withey, Dearest Friend: A Life of Abigail Adams (London:Collier Macmillan Publishers, 1981), 255. "'Not One Cent For Tribute': The Public Addresses and American Popular Reaction to the XYZ Affair, 1798-1799." Journal of the Early Republic 3 (1983): 389-412.Rohrs, R. The machinationssurrounding the XYZ Affair led, among other things, to an American law, theLogan Act, prohibiting the conduct of foreign policy in any form by privatecitizens. The Republicans attempted toplace the blame for the XYZ Affair on the members of the Americancommission to whom the bribery demand was delivered.[18] President Adams deplored the penchant among the American public fortaking sides with either the British or the French, and for the condemningof American citizens for taking those positions.[19] The public debate inthe United States had degenerated to the condemnation of those Americanswho supported France as being atheistic and bloodthirsty, while thoseAmericans who supported the British were characterized as monarchists whoopposed the egalitarian principles upon which the United States wasfounded. Ray, "'Not One Cent For Tribute': The Public Addresses andAmerican Popular Reaction to the XYZ Affair, 1798-1799," Journal of theEarly Republic 3 (1983): 389-412. The Alien Act provided President Adams with the power to expelforeigners from the United States who were suspected of plotting againstthe American government.[32] The Sedition Act provided a needed basis forthe United States government to act against domestic conspiracies tooverthrow the government. [61] J. [23] Morison, 7 . (Ed.). [6 ] Neustadt, 3 . [36] Leckie, 224. [26] L. P. P. Miroff, "John Adams' Classical Conception of the Executive,"Presidential Studies Quarterly 17 (1987): 365-382. The developers of theAmerican political system recognized that tyranny could come from anyquarter. Crisis in Freedom: The Alien and Sedition Acts. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc.Sosnowski, T. Swindler, "Seditious Aliens and native 'Seditionists,'"Supreme Court Historical Society Yearbook (1984): 12-19. [56] Neustadt, 185. [35] Morison, 74. The three French officials, who were referred to asMonsieurs X, Y, and Z, informed the American mission that no negotiationsbetween the two countries over the French naval action could begin until a$25 , bribe had been paid to foreign Minister Talleyrand and until theUnited States government had extended a $1 million loan to the governmentof France. [37] R. B. [41] Miller, 243. [45] B. [31] Leckie, 223. John Adams. Thus, the central goal of American political theory is the preventionof tyranny, which requires the effective use of the art of compromise inthe conduct of the political process. A. New York: Mason/Charter, 1976.Holder, J. [15] Leckie, 224. [5] Leckie, 224. Thisconcept of the presidency is quite different from that of Richard Neustadt. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1978.Brown, R. The Diary and Autobiography of John Adams II. J. (Ed.). More than 3 American vessels, flying theflag of France, were captured by the United States Navy. Whilethe President was not enthusiastic about the Sedition Act, he neverthelesspermitted subordinates in his administration to prosecute members of thepress who supported the opposition Republicans.[33] In spite of the strongopposition to the Sedition Act, the law remained in force during the AdamsAdministration, and in one iteration or another has remained in force inthe United States ever since. [6] S. [11] F. Rebels and Democrats. The Republicans, thus, fell into the trap set by Adams, as theFederalist majority in congress voted to release the documents to thepublic, an action that undercut the Republican position. M. This approach to the theory of American democracy and thetheory of the presidency is consistent with the ideas and concepts of JamesMadison which were highly influential in the development of the Americansystem of government. [29] Withey, 255. THE FOREIGN POLICY OF JOHN ADAMS: THE EFFECT OF DOMESTIC POLITICS ON THE RESOLUTION OF THE XYZ AFFAIR, THE QUASI NAVAL WAR WITH FRANCE, AND OTHER SIGNIFICANT ISSUES Introduction This research examines the foreign policy of John Adams, secondPresident of the United States (1797-18 1). New York: Oxford University Press, 1965.Holbrook-DeFeo, G. Give all power to the few, they willoppress the many."[55] Having said that tyranny could come from anyquarter, however, the framers of the American Constitution displayed a fargreater fear of legislative tyranny than of executive or judicial tyranny.It is in this context that Neustadt contends that presidents should seek toextend the power of the presidency, and states further that: "Thecontributions that a president can make to government are indispensable.Assuming that he knows what power is and wants it, those contributionscannot help but be forthcoming in some measure as by-products of his searchfor personal influence."[56] In practical terms, Madison saw the republic (synonymous at that timewith representative democracy) as the required form of political structureto insure that tyranny would be prevented.[57] Others, notably Hamilton,did not think that a republican structure was the best means of preventingtyranny. Norton & Company, 1982.Madison, J. Because John Adams failed tounite the Federalist Party and win reelection, the importance of hispresidency has tended to be overlooked.[61] Conclusion This research examined the foreign policy of John Adams, secondPresident of the United States (1797-18 1). Leckie, The Wars of America, Vol. C. Generally, Madisonian political theory attempted todevelop a compromise between the power of majorities and the power ofminorities, between the political equality of all adult citizens on the oneside, and the desire to limit their sovereignty on the other. The Wars of America, Vol. C. B. In the end, the Federalists were forcedto compromise in order to obtain ratification. Ineach instance, the treatment of John Adams as president has beenunjustified. The expansion of theArmy, however, led to the creation of the United States Military Academyduring the Adams Administration. Holder, "The Sources of Presidential Power: John Adams andthe Challenge to Executive Primacy," Political Science Quarterly 1 1(1986): 615. New York: St. While he was condemned by opponentsboth in his own party and in the opposition party for this approach, he wassuccessful in resolving the shipping interdiction problem involving theFrench without resort to armed conflicts. [13] L. Miller, Crisis in Freedom: The Alien and Sedition Acts(Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1951), 257. A Preface to Democratic Theory. The absence of "an agreed definitionof natural rights" was, in the eighteenth century, and remains, in the lasthalf of the twentieth century, "one of the central difficulties of theMadisonian theory."[54] It is difficult to protect the natural rights ofindividuals within a political system, when the individual members of thesystem do not agree as to just what those natural rights are.Nevertheless, through its practice of compromise, that is what the Americanpolitical system continues to attempt to do. B. Similarly,as President, Adams was so busy dealing with the French issue, that he hadlittle time to devote to international relations between the United Statesand countries other than France. [2] R. C. The policy generated the strongest public support forPresident Adams that he ever enjoyed.[11] Nevertheless, President Adamswas determined to prevent a war between the United States and France, andhe held a strong desire to avoid any alliance with Great Britain.[12] Upon first hearing of the details of the XYZ Affair, the Republicansrefused to accept the truth of the report, suspecting that the entireincident was a Federalist ruse.[13] In an effort to embarrass PresidentAdams, the Republicans demanded that the XYZ documents be presented to theCongress. Adams sought political harmony within the Federalist Party through theextension of trust and forgiveness to his opponents within the party.[48]The President pursued the goal of non partisan political harmony betweenthe Federalists and the Republicans through a similar extension of trustand forgiveness to Jefferson and other prominent Republicans. The Naval Build-Up, the Expansion of the Army, and Funding the Military and Naval Expansion Following public disclosure of the XYZ Affair, the Congress revivedthe now dormant American Navy and Marine Corps, and authorized an expansionof the United States Army.[15] The American Army prepared to meet ananticipated French invasion of the United States. Donovan, The John Adams Papers (New York: Dodd, Mead &Company, 1965), 263. [8] T. Appleton-CenturyCompany, Inc., 1946), 374. The John Adams Papers. Adams'efforts failed in both arenas, as his pursuit of political harmony wasinterpreted by both his Federalist and Republican opponents as a weaknessthat could be exploited to their own ends. The Federalist Era: 1789-18 1 .New York: Harper & Brothers, 196 .Neustadt, R. A. Ineffect, the Directory demanded that the American commission denounce theAmerican President. Adams, however, viewed hisefforts as successful in that war was avoided, the central values of theUnited States were preserved, and Alexander Hamilton's imperial schemeswere blocked.[45] The bitterness and divisiveness of the conflict betweenAdams and Hamilton led to both the defeat of Adams' second term effort, andthe death of the Federalist Party.[46] The Adams Presidency Almost the entirety of the tenure of John Adams as President wasconsumed by foreign relations between the United States and France.[47]Adams had almost no time to devote to domestic policy, although the AlienAct and the Sedition Act that were passed into law as a direct consequenceof the dispute with France certainly affected domestic policy. F. C. As President, John Adams sought to protect American interests whileavoiding war to the extent possible. In this context, Alexander Hamilton said: "Give all power to themany, they will oppress the few. C., and Baker, V. [46] G. H. [16] Morison, 7 . Two. B. Earle, (Ed.), The Federalist (NewYork: Random House, 195 ), 313. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 196 .Ray, T. John Adams was widely condemned or ignored by his contemporaries, andhe has frequently suffered a similar fate at the hands of historians. The high Federalists opposed the peace overture by France.[43]President Adams, however, disagreed, and sent a representative to Paris toconclude a peace agreement in response to the French conciliatory position. "The Quasi-War With France." Naval History 6 (1992): 16- 21.Swindler, W. [47] Shaw, 25 . Further, Adams worried that adeclaration of war against France by the United States would place thesafety of the American mission in Paris in peril.[37] President Adams senta new minister to Paris to conclude a peace agreement with the French.[38]The high Federalists were enraged, but did not act against the Presidentout of fear of being condemned not by Adams, but by the Jefferson-ledRepublicans for attempting to prolong the hostile situation between the twocountries. Abigail Adams: A Biography. Baker, "Bitter Farewells: Francophobiaand the French Émigré in America," Proceedings of the Consortium onRevolutionary Europe 175 -185 21 (1992): 276-283. These checks andbalances were (and remain) intended to insure that no individual or groupof individuals was able to deprive another individual or group ofindividual of their natural rights. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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Office hours are Monday through Friday, from 9 am to 5 pm (PST). You may place orders for custom research over the phone during office hours. E-mail requests can be made to our graduate and undergraduate department any time, and will be reviewed during office hours. You may also contact customer service any time through e-mail, and we will review your message during business hours. A great many papers can be downloaded right from this site, but not all of them. If you would like to know if a particular paper is downloadable, just look in the description for: "Available for Internet Download: Y" or "Available for Internet Download: N" If you wish to purchase a paper which is NOT available for immediate download, you will need to make other shipping arrangements. Also, please be aware that these orders are processed Monday through Friday from 9 am to 5 pm (PST). If you place your order after 4:45pm on Friday, it will not be processed until the following Monday morning. We charge $8 per page for all of our pre-written reports, plus shipping (and tax for California residents). However, the highest cost of any ONE report is $136, or 17 pages. Please, take a moment. Make sure you have chosen the report you want or need BEFORE you complete your order. If you are not sure, allow us to help you. We do not offer refunds or exchanges, so it is important for you to let us answer your questions during office hours. Reports which are e-mailed or downloaded are in Microsoft Word format. We are making more reports available for e-mail delivery faster than we can update our listings. Please call to check on the status of particular reports. There are many other shipping options which are listed on the Checkout page.