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Paper Abstract: Competing theories on evolution, meaning of anthropological discoveries, regional origins, cognitive aspects. Paper Introduction: The purpose of this research is to examine human origins. The plan of the research will be to set forth the context in which the development of the species Homo sapiens can be elaborated and then to discuss theoretical and experimental work regarding such phenomena as "Lucy" and other extinct precursors of the family Hominidae, as well as theories that propose the onset of human evolution from 112,000 to 124,000 years ago. The popular culture is full of controversy regarding divisions between modern man (as denoted in the professional literature) and extinct precursor species of it. Notwithstanding the sociocultural controversy surrounding Darwin's theory of evolution, scientific investigation of the origins of human beings has evolution at its core. In the first quarter of the twentieth century, the generally Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Cosmos. Hartwigscherer, S., & Martin, R. (1994, April 6). G. This view is treated ratherdifferently by Donald (1993, p. In other words, physical or mentaldifferentiation perforce implied separation. 337, 217-224. 1 46). Since that time, both younger and olderfossils of Australo-pithecus have been discovered in Ethiopia. 38-4 . 8, pp. (1994, April 1). Fischman, J. Lucy on the earth in stasis.Natural History, 1 3, pp. (1992, August 29). Lemonick, M. (Vol. Stringer (1992, passim) says that the multiregional model of recenthuman evolution competes with a model asserting an African human origin.The models diverge on the question of when regional differentiationoccurred, and Stringer concludes that the single, African origin mostsatisfactorily accounts for the emergence of distinctive Homo sapienscharacteristics. In this regard, Abitbol (1995) compares the posture of the Lucyskeleton, which is but the earliest hominid and more precisely not Homo butrather Australopithecus, finding that the angle of the Lucy skeleton'sspine in its maximal erect position is consistent only with the human spinein a pathological and not particularly erect position. (1994, March 31). Thefirst skull and-other new discoveries of Australopithecus afarensis atHadar, Ethiopia. 44 ). Notwithstanding the sociocultural controversysurrounding Darwin's theory of evolution, scientific investigation of theorigins of human beings has evolution at its core. Interpretation, taxonomy, and theory overlap and converge in allthree areas. 34-45. References Abitbol, M. 449-5 ). Kennedy, K. Shepartz believes that language abilitycannot be shown to mark off modern man, irrespective of whether modern manemerged from a single point of origin in Africa 2 , -1 , years agoin the late Pleistocene period, with Neanderthal man, or in several pointsof roughly concurrent origin in Africa, Asia, and Europe 4 , 3 , yearsago, with Cro-Magnon man. Prehistoric Asians. (1994, October 3). Reconstructing recent humanevolution. (1981). Most ancient human came from Afar.New Scientist, pp. The difficulties of decisively marking the emergence of modern manappear to lie in two general areas, apart from continual fossil discovery.First, there is disagreement over the differences between Homo erectus andHomo sapiens. Leakey's discovery of what he called Homohabilis in the 196 s has been challenged as closer to Australopithecus thanto Homo erectus (Wells, 1971; Hartwigscherer & Martin, 1991). Human cognitive evolution: what we were,what we are becoming. 345; Begley, 1994, p. The classification of Homo erectus as an ancestor of Homo sapiens,with examples found in many parts of the world, implies a theory ofconcurrent evolutionary development, reflecting regional or perhaps racialcharacteristics typical of the various parts of the world. Other analystsassert that the Australopithecus fossils demonstrate that bone structuresare closer to hominid than ape morphology (Kimbel, Johanson & Rak, 1994,pp. D. In the first quarter of the twentieth century, the generally acceptedmodel of explanation for the emergence of the species Homo sapiens,distinguished by a greater cranial capacity than its morphologicalancestors, revolved around classification of Pleistocene primate hominidfossils found in various parts of the world. The term modern man is identified as the most paleontologically andgeologically recent in the line of evolved primates Homo sapiens. "Lucy," crucial early human ancestor,finally gets a head. 261). The popular culture is full of controversy regarding divisionsbetween modern man (as denoted in the professional literature) and extinctprecursor species of it. 58-62). . Tempo and mode in human evolution.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States ofAmerica, 91, pp. P.Wells. Shepartz reviews competing theories in regard to rational andcognitive attributes, one school holding that language in its complex formdeveloped relatively late and the other school holding that complexlanguage appeared relatively earlier, as one among many components ofrational hominid development. Day, M. Sagan, C. 264, 34-5. 12-17. Neanderthal fossils have been found in Africa (e.g.,Omo man) and Europe (e.g., Swanscombe man, Steinheim man). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. Time, 144,pp. 2 4),which appeared initially at the Middle Quaternary, between 4 , and1 , years ago. Aiello, L. Variable but singular. (1981). The latter two specimens are examples of the toolmaking group typeinitially classified as a genus, Pithecanthropus, but (based on anatomicalobservation) later as early examples of the bipedal Homo erectus, datedfrom 2 , to 5 , years ago, thus spanning the Early and MiddleQuaternaries (Kennedy, 1981, p. 91-125. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of LondonSeries B: Biological Sciences, pp. (1994, October 1). 439). The purpose of this research is to examine human origins. Indeed, Abitbolmakes the point (p. In other words, language would have been withhominids from the time the genus Homo evolved. C. (1994, September). Day says that Neanderthal specimens represent "amixture of advanced and less advanced features" (p. Withinthe biological family known as Hominidae, or biped primate mammals,intellect (sapiens = wise in Latin) distinguishes the human species fromother, extinct primate Hominidae such as Australopithecus and Homo erectus("Human life," 1981, pp. Nature, 368, pp. Wells, H. The problems aremorphological, cultural, and geographical--not to say professional, as faras expert rivalry is concerned. 56-7. Nature, 368,pp. Thus, for example, some characteristics of extinct species justpreceding extant species could be scientifically dated at the same periodas specimens from later species. 21 -11). A. Was Lucy morehuman than her child--observations on early hominid postcranial skeletons.Journal of Human Evolution, 21, pp. Later periods are known as the Early Quaternary (1million to 4 , years ago); Middle Quaternary (4 , to 1 , yearsago); and Late Quaternary (1 , to 1 , years ago) ("Human life,"1981, pp. Kimbel, W. Yet the former's apparently rationalpredatory behavior served as the basis for Dart's theory that anthropoidbehavior, notably tool/weapon-based hunting, preceded the more rationallyrefined Homo sapiens (Ardrey, 1961, pp. M. 678 -6786. Homo sapiens. (1981). R. 68-9. 215ff) that the Lucy skeleton's sacral and iliac spinalposition would make (modern) human motion extremely difficult and painful.Such observations indicate that hominid and Australopithecus morphologiesare not coordinate with but plainly diverse from Homo. Stone tools, aswell as evidence of hunting survival strategies, are features of the Homosapiens of this (Paleolithic) period (Day, 1981, p. H., Johanson, D. 1 44) explains mosaic evolution as the theory that variouspopulations evolved not only in various locations but also at variousrates. Such specimens-as Lucy from 1974 onward must be set beside suchfossil discoveries as Java man (found in 1891) and Peking man (found in1927). Eiseley, L. Chicago: EncyclopaediaBritannica. (198 ). 6784-5), who says thatmorphological adaptations to bipedalism may have come about as early asAustralopithecus afarensis but that such refinements as increase of cranialsize developed much more rapidly after the appearance of Homo erectus. 84). 4 ). C., & Rak, Y. R. 439-449. 1 46), which pointstoward a mixture of Homo sapiens and Homo erectus features. Gould, S. D. (1971). Special issues arise with the so-called "problem" of Neanderthal man. Shreeve, J. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. The development of human life has been associated with fourpaleontological periods known as the Quaternary Hominidae, with the firstor basal Quaternary starting at a maximum of 3 million and a minimum of 1million years ago. Robinson describes the earliest human species as Australopithecusafricanus, a 3 million-year-old specimen discovered by Raymond Dart in 1924that had anatomical, environmental, and behavioral similarities to modernman but that preceded the morphology and behavior of the genus Homo.Australo-pithecus africanus, as well as other species attached to the genusAustralopithecus, emerged in the Early Quaternary, and Australopithecusappears to have been both distinct from and previous to Homo (Robinson,1981, passim; Day, 1981, p. The planof the research will be to set forth the context in which the developmentof the species Homo sapiens can be elaborated and then to discusstheoretical and experimental work regarding such phenomena as "Lucy" andother extinct precursors of the family Hominidae, as well as theories thatpropose the onset of human evolution from 112, to 124, years ago. 211-212). (1991, December). However, there arealso alternative views, such as that evolving bipedalism enabled thespecies to care for the young or to select and gather fruit (Begley, 1994,p. Ardrey, R. McDonald, K. Journal of Human Evolution, 28, pp. 143-7 . In Propaedia: outline of knowledge, The newencyclopaedia Britannica (pp. 284). (1994, May). The outline of history. M. Postgate & G. 436-44 . (Eds.). (1994, January).Metatarsophalangeal joint function and positional behavior inAustralopithecus afarensis. In this regard, Sagan says that the bipedal morphology of Homoerectus freed the hands and suited the species to toolmaking tasks (198 ,p. J. 438-9) points out,Homo erectus is man, not man-ape. That is to say, selected characteristicsof Homo erectus could be identified in specimens of Homo sapiens.Identification of Neanderthal characteristics, both in specimens dated allacross the great span of years in the Pleistocene epoch and among somemodern South Pacific peoples (Day, 1981; Kennedy, 1981), is also consistentwith this theory. The task of the paleontologists inthis regard is to seek where and how the known physical factors intersectwith the known and unknown psychological ones to mark that uniqueness. 2, pp. 3 -33). 143, 16. In The new encyclopaediaBritannica (Vol. Robinson, J. the moment we say 'Man' we are in danger ofwandering into a swamp of abstraction." One could also say that access to abstraction is not the danger butthe wonder of man, and uniquely of man. 2, pp. (1981). (1995, January). . There is apparently no evidence that successivehuman species (i.e., species and subspecies) were "sympatric," or occupyingthe same territory at the same time. (1993, Spring). Cosmic orphan: introduction to part four.Propaedia, Outline of Knowledge, Encyclopaedia Britannica (pp. However,Neanderthal features have been found in modern humans, and earlierNeanderthal man has been identified as a subspecies of Homo sapiens and aprecursor to (modern) Cro-Magnon man (Kennedy, 1981, passim; Ardrey, 1961,p. Darwin's evolutionary hypothesis seems-well entrenched, but lack oftheoretical agreement on what constitutes the difference between man andman's ancestors shows that the missing link is still missing. 211-229. A strict theory of the fullyevolved Homo sapiens is based on strict anatomical criteria such as brainsize and cranial capacity (1,35 cubic centimeters), rounded forehead, andfully upright posture capacity (Clark, 1955, passim). Some sources say that such afarensisspecimens prove the existence of altogether distinct species, but othersconsider them to be stages in the life of the same species (Shreeve, 1994). 56; Bunney, 1994) or that the evolutionary morphology ofAustralopithecus afarensis falls somewhere between African ape and humanspecies (Duncan, Kappelman & Shapiro, 1994). 2 6-8).Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. 1 44).This is supported by McHenry (1994, pp. New York: Dell Publishing. Indeed, Day (p. Out of Africa, a missing link.Newsweek, 124, pp. Still others declare that Australopithecus afarensis isdimorphic, resembling hominids in bipedal locomotion and resembling apes inadaptation to "arboreality" (Aiello, 1994, p. Discover, 16,pp. 143-5), who believes that the nonlinguisticcognitive faculties that must precede the achievement of language andrational behavior were present before the species Homo erectus; use oftools and weapons before this period, cited earlier, would be consistentwith this view. Equally significant, as Robinson explains, is the fact thatthe whole field of human development is difficult and "in some respectsmust remain speculative." Accordingly, he says, "considerable difference ofopinion may always exist and absolute certainty will always be impossible"(Robinson, 1981, p. In The newencyclopaedia Britannica (Vol. 1 46). Duncan, A. Lucy's boys get a head. 1 42-1 49). Atthe time of its discovery, Lucy was considered the oldest hominid ancestor,or "link" between man and ape. As Robinson (1981, p. Australopithecus. African genesis. T. S., Kappelman, J., & Shapiro, L. However, they doappear to have been rational, as indicated by evidence of toolmaking andfood-storage survival strategies (Robinson, 1981, passim; "Human life,"1981). 334-5) is credited with the term "predatory transition,"to mark the view that intelligent weapon use by the carnivorousAustralopithecus preceded the appearance of genus Homo. A15. A Homo erectus resemblesAustralopithecus in its small brain size, relative to Homo sapiens.However, it resembles Homo sapiens in its bipedalism and in evidencepointing to rational capacity. Donald, M. In this regard,Day (1981, p. A. Based on the fossil record available in 1981, Dayconcludes that early Homo sapiens, dated from 25 , to 1 , years ago,or the so-called late/upper middle Pleistocene Epoch, was rapidly evolvingand therefore particularly "subject to this mosaic process" (p. But the genus Homo sapiens is asdifferent from it as man is from ape. (1981). 449-53. . American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 93,pp. The fossil record alone argues an archaic-African originfor modern man, with migration toward Asia and Europe and subsequentdifferentiation following (Wells, 1971, pp. 165ff). In either case, Australopithecus is transitional. 1 45). Language and modern human origins.Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 36, pp. Dart (as cited inArdrey, 1961, pp. Second, there is some disagreement over the degree to whichNeanderthal man overlaps with Cro-Magnon man (35, -1 , years ago), thelatter directly identified with modern Homo-sapiens and the formervariously identified with Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. Fossil evidence in Asia dated in the late Pleistocene period(3 , -4 , years ago) has uncovered evidence of what has beenidentified as a late variant of Neanderthal Man (Kennedy, 1981, p. 399-4 . H. New York: Random House. 1 46) points out a number of fossil remainsdiscovered at various points in Europe and grouped under the name Homosapiens neanderthalensis. (1995, March). A. (1955) Fossil evidence for human evolution. (1961). McHenry, H. Competing human-development theories collide in three principal areasof interpretation: morphological/fossil features; extent and nature ofculture-bearing/rational characteristics; and geographical/geochronologicalfeatures. Human life. Or as Eiseley(1981, p. Neanderthal specimens cover a wide time period-from the late middle toupper Pleistocene period, or from 2 , to 15, years ago (Day, 1981,p. One less missing link. 1 48). To put itanother way, the issues of species, genus, and subspecies have not beensettled, even among the experts. 67-91. Omni, 16,pp. Begley, S. B. Hominids of the basal and Early Quaternaries, whichinclude examples of Homo erectus, were not "culture-bearing" creatures inthe modern meaning of the term (Robinson, 1981, p. As more fossils havebeen uncovered, however, various, competing theories have arisen regardinghuman origins. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company.----------------------- 1 When Neanderthal-man fossil records were first discovered, expertscreated the genus Homo neanderthalensis (Day, 1981, p. 2 9-79). Stringer, C. (1994, October 3). Language use, according to Donald, would have developedonly with cultural memory (Donald, 1993, pp. Social Research, 6 , pp. J. Lateral view of Australopithecusafarensis: Primitive aspects of bipedal positional behavior in the earliesthominids. Such discoveries have also led some experts (e.g., Gould, 1994) toconclude that Homo and Australopithecus were not merely successive orrelated but also distinct species that shared a common genetic (ape)ancestor, in part because of the decisively smaller brain cavity of theAustralopithecus compared to the Homo (McDonald, 1994; McAuliffe & Willis,1994; Shreeve, 1994, pp. The oldest dated example of Australopithecus appeared in Ethiopia in1974, in the form of a 3 million-year-old headless skeleton termedAustralopithecus afarensis, informally named "Lucy" after the popular song"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" and deriving its species name from the Afarregion of Ethiopia (Fischman, 1995; Lemonick, 1994; McDonald, 1994). Science, pp. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica. Schepartz, L. Skull of oldest known humanancestor discovered by scientists, stirring questions on human origins.Chronicle of Higher Education, 4 , p. Bunney, S. 2 -2 5). Clark, L. McAuliffe, S., &: Willis, D. In The new encyclopaediaBritannica. The olderspecimen, Australopithecus ramidus, discovered in 1994, is dated at 4.4million years and is said to be closer in morphology to apes than humans(Bunney, 1994; Shreeve, 1994). (1993, Annual). 2 4). 2 7) puts it: "men have been seeking Man capitalized, animaginary creature constructed out of disparate parts in the laboratory ofthe human imagination . Lucy's father. (1994, March 31). (1994, July 19). Chicago:University of Chicago Press. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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