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Paper Abstract: Life & career of Spanish Muslim leader of 9th Cent.-10th Cent. History, politics, military, hierarchy, religion. Paper Introduction: Abd al-Rahman III This paper will examine the life of Abd al-Rahman III, the first caliph of Spain. The first part of the paper will provide a general background to the rule of Abd al-Rahman, including a brief discussion of the Muslim conquest of Spain. The second part of the paper will examine the life of Abd al-Rahman, focusing upon his military accomplishments and his establishment of the caliphate in Spain. The third part of the paper will discuss the government of Moorish Spain, looking at the caliphate and the local government, and will briefly discuss the economy of Moorish Spain under Abd al-Rahman. Background The Iberian Peninsula was settled by various groups throughout the period before the Muslim conquest in the Eighth Century. Iberians, Celt Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. At the end of this path, they reached acourtyard covered with sand, at the center of which was the caliph. The Fatamids did nothing toallay these fears, for they desired control of Spain, just as their Arabpredecessors had. The qadi and his subordinates wereresponsible for administering summary justice and for local policing. More important,however, were the indirect attacks on the Fatamid. The kingdom was divided into twenty smallerprovinces (kuwar), each of which was ruled by its own governor. The Arabs, whocomprised the Muslim leadership and upper classes, were divided intofactions which dated back centuries. Muhammad reigned for fourteen years, from 852to 886, and Spain was initially almost as peaceful and prosperous as it hadbeen under his father. Although all decisions were theoreticallyvested in his person, the caliph delegated authority to the two highest-ranking officials, the hajib, and the supreme judge, the qadi al-jama. The twobest sources I could find concerning the life of Ferdinand were Lomax andMenéndez, and even these limited discussion of Ferdinand to a few pages.Among the sources which might have been useful (I'm not sure since I wasunable to locate them) are Scott, History of the Moorish Empire in Europe(Vol. Philadelphia: J. When armies fromLéon and Navarre marched on the rebellious Moor provinces to the north, Abdal-Rahman met them with a superior force of his own and over severalcampaigns defeated the Christian armies in the field and sacked severalChristian towns. Al-Rahman would be seated on the ground, clothed in almost worthless clothing. European by birth, most were captured by various groups ofindependent raiders and sold to merchants, who took them to Lucena foremasculation. He established the singleMuslim kingdom of Spain, calling it al-Andulus, and declared it to beindependent of Baghdad. In 939, his army, which numbered about 1 , men, was met atSimancas, near Valladoid, by a Christian army composed of the combinedforces of Léon, Navarre, and Castile. In addition, the palace intriguesleft Abd-Allah with no surviving sons to succeed him, so the emirate wentto his twenty-one-year-old grandson, Abd al-Rahman.[7] If one were to classify a person by their bloodlines, Abd al-Rahmanwas at least as European as he was Arab. Both sides tended to ignore the fact that the Moors were nolonger racially pure Arabs or North Africans. Finally, there alsoexisted the exacerbating factor of race: the Christians detested the ideaof any part of Europe ruled by Arabs and Africans, while the Moorsdismissed the Europeans from the north as uneducated and unculturedbarbarians. On the other hand, he wasunable to expand the Muslim rule into the northern regions of Europe andwas forced to abandon plans of conquest in the Pyrenees and France. The hajib directed the lesser viziersresponsible for overall policy, the army, finances and taxation, and themanagement of the royal household. 1 (Philadelphia: J. In thepalace, they were the only males allowed regular access to the harem andthey gained the trust of the caliph and the most powerful officials in thepalace. Abd al-Rahman III This paper will examine the life of Abd al-Rahman III, the firstcaliph of Spain. The bloody conflict and a famine caused the Berbers to leaveSpain, abandoning the northern plateau to the Christians.[3] In 75 , resentment against the Arabs and the Ummayad caliphate led tothe overthrow of the Ummayads and the transfer of the caliphate to theAbbasids in Baghdad. P. Thisaction was not intended as an act of opposition to the Abbasids, nor as aclaim of jurisdiction over all Muslims throughout the world. As a result of the control over the Mediterranean by Muslim seapower, al-Andulus became an international trading power, while theChristian countries in the West sank into subsistence economies.[4] Al-Andulus was composed of many different ethnic and racial groups,who were further divided by religion. These operations often employed more than onethousand men to work one sight. He was able to unite the Muslim provincesin Spain under a central authority and prevent the emerging Christiankingdoms from encroaching upon al-Andulus. Extensive mining operations were introduced andseveral operations included mine shafts which extended several hundredfathoms into the ground. They established their own family dynasties, independent of thecaliphate and sultanate, and further weakened the Muslim empire inSpain.[2 ] The lack of representative government eventually led to theresentment of the Christian provinces, who were influenced by thedemocratic beginnings in the north. Among the books I didn't find were:Reinhart Dozy, Spanish Islam: A History of the Moslems in Spain; Imamuddin,Political History of Muslim Spain; al-Maqqari, History of the MohammedanDynasties in Spain; Willam Watt, History of Islamic Spain; Collins, EarlyMedieval Spain; and O'Callaghan, History of Medieval Spain. This townshipcontained a mosque, as well as markets and houses for the royaldependents.[16] The central authority of Al-Andulus under Abd al-Rahman and the newcaliphate was anything but a representative government. Officials sent by the caliph found John and gave him money to buynew clothing for his audience with Abd al-Rahman; John gave the money tothe poor, saying that he could not appear in anything but his monk's garb.Impressed with his sense of holy duty, Abd al-Rahman received John andinsisted on repeated meetings and discussions with the monk.[25] Al-Andulus under the new caliphate was one of the most prosperousregions in Europe. London: Henry G. At this point, theemissaries would be told, "Behold the ruler."[23] Access to the caliph was not easy and required the presentation ofexpensive gifts. BibliographyCondé, J. Lippencott Company, 19 4), 566-8 . The emirate was too weak tosuppress the revolts and semi-independent states sprang up throughout thePeninsula. During the next tenyears, the Muslim leaders marched their armies throughout the Peninsula,capturing cities and towns in the name of Allah and expanding their controlover most of Spain. By this time, Christianity had takenroot among the Spaniards and the Visigoths adopted the religion and much ofthe civilization of Christian Rome. This title gave him theexplicit power of absolute sovereign over al-Andulus, entitling him toresist incursions from other Muslim groups. The important crops of the dry regions were cereals, beans,olives, and vines. They then began to lead expeditions into France, wherethe Merovingian kingdom was rapidly disintegrating under weak kings.Between 719 and 751, the Muslim leaders tried to maintain control over thesouthern regions of France but were eventually driven out by Charles Marteland his son, Pepin III. His grandfather, Abd al-Rahman II had been one of the moreillustrious emirs in Spain but his father, Muhammad, gradually let thoseaccomplishments slip away. The Werner Company, 191 .Lane-Poole, Stanley. A. The country supported itself with agriculture and theexploitation of natural resources; foreign trade was largely confined toluxuries. He was succeeded by his son, al-Hakam II. Although his campaigns were generally successful, one wasnot. Crops of the humid regions includedpomegranates, sugar cane, bananas, coconut palms, maize, and rice;cultivation of these crops required the development of extensive irrigationsystems, some of which had been introduced by the Romans.[26] Among the natural resources exploited were gold, silver, copper,mercury, lead, and iron. P. Modern civilization flourished underthe Greeks and Romans, but urbanization gave way to peasant farming afterthe conquest by the Visigoths in 469. Regardless of the tales whicharose concerning Roland, warfare was especially brutal during this periodand neither prisoners nor civilians were spared torture and death. Although they had been mined by the Romans,production had declined during the time of the Visigoths; the Moors hadexpanded production. The Muslims fought for the domination of Allah and his prophet,while the Christians fought for the restoration of a Roman Empire under theguidance and authority of God and his only son, Jesus. Because of this disastroussituation, the Christian kingdoms in the north made significant inroadsinto the once dominant Moorish Spain. Thegovernments of these provinces were similar in form to that of thecaliphate. [25]Read, 79-8 ; Scott, 599-6 1. Commanding prices as much as four times higher than thosefor ordinary slaves, most were then sold to the palace in Córdoba. His new palace was administered through the use of many rules ofetiquette. [2 ]Lane-Poole, 114-15. Although most of the Ummayads were killed, one them,Abd al-Rahman, escaped to Spain. It was from these sources that most of theornate trim of the palace originated.[27] Abd al-Rahman died in 961. Many became powerful in the administration and thearmy and several of the caliph's generals were eunuchs. But Muhammad did not tolerate religious orpolitical dissent and he repressed both violently. And it was not unusual for a single delegation to present all ofthe above gifts. Hisrule as Caliph set a precedent for his successors; he embraced thesolemnity and extravagance of the title and distanced himself from hissubjects. Abd al-Rahman displayed his blood ancestry throughhis blue eyes and reddish hair. [18]Ibid., 83. His mother, Muzna, was eitherFrankish or Basque, captured by the Arab settlers of Spain, and "betrothed"to his father, Muhammad as a concubine. The Moors in Spain. The emissaries stopped to prostratethemselves at the feet of each dignitary, apparently believing that one ofthem had to be the caliph. [24]Ibid., 79; Scott, 615-16. Background The Iberian Peninsula was settled by various groups throughout theperiod before the Muslim conquest in the Eighth Century. In addition, severalEnglish-language books listed in indexes specializing in Spanish andIslamic history were unavailable. A township occupied thelower level, separated from the palace by extensive gardens. Al-Andulus under his rule prospered, but his successors wereunable to sustain the power he acquired. Foreign emissaries would present such gifts so that theywould not be rebuffed, and Abd al-Rahman usually made sure that thesedelegations did not return to their rulers empty-handed. Groups in urban areas often rose upin revolt against tax and other government policies, and were usuallybrutally put down by those in power. The Moors in Spain and Portugal. Bohn, 1854.Florian, M. Daytime skirmishing occurred overperiod of several days, with both armies retiring to their respective campsat night, as was the custom during the Middle Ages. It was no coincidence that Abdal-Rahman assumed the new title at a time when it had become apparent thatthe Abbasids held little actual authority outside of the city of Baghdad.Thus, the Abbasids had no real authority over the holy cities of Mecca andMedina and by assuming the title of Caliph Abd al-Rahman was really notchallenging them.[15] Al-Andulus under Abd Al-Rahman To go along with his new title, Abd al-Rahman constructed the palaceof Madinat al-Zahra. Lomax, The Reconquest of Spain (London: Longman, 1978), 1 -11. Various locales had seceded from the control of theemirate and had become independent states. Because the country was never completely tranquil, theprovinces and the cities within them resembled small kingdoms which werelargely responsible for the safety of their inhabitants.[18] Within the palace itself, some of the most important figures were theeunuchs. Hisfirst act in this direction was to end the ten-year secession of the Hjjajsin Seville. Instead, theycontented themselves with making sure that the tribute was paid, leavingthe regions to the Christians, who came under the increasing influence ofthe French.[13] Another threat then arose from North Africa. In contrast with his father, al-Hakam was intenselyinterested in religion and philosophy. Jonathan Foster, vol. Lippencott Company, 19 4. Rather than completely subjugate thekingdoms, however, Abd al-Rahman merely required that they pay an annualtribute to Córdoba. Before him would be a Koran, a sword, and a fire. By 929, Abd al-Rahmanhad defeated the major Muslim insurgencies and rebellions in Spain and hadalready begun to turn his attention to the Christian kingdoms in theNorth.[9] Over the long term, the Christian kingdoms proved to be the mostintractable and dangerous foes of the Muslim empire of al-Andulus. [3]Ibid., 17; Jan Read, The Moors in Spain and Portugal (London: Faberand Faber, 1974), 35-39. He was simplyasserting his own right as an absolute sovereign, a right which wasinherited from his Umayyad caliphate ancestors. Favoringcertain groups over others and precipitating conflicts, Abd al-Rahman wasable to incite insurrections among the African Berbers and dilute the powerof the Fatamid. Instead of utilizing theservices of men born to the wealthy families, Abd al-Rahman placed histrust in men of lower birth. Those regions who retained somemeasure of independence from the Muslims retained some degree of democratictradition, left over from the time of the Visigoths. [2]Ibid., 11-15. After these defeats, the Muslims contentedthemselves with controlling the Iberian Peninsula.[2] Although Spain fell to the Muslims because of Gothic disunity, theMuslim conquerors were not models of unity either. I could find no journal articles concerning Abd al-Rahman in humanities indexes dating back to 19 5. On the last day of the battle, the Moors were forced to retreatinto a previously constructed ditch, where they were massacred by theChristians. Jews, who were also tolerated, had to becareful of both Muslims and Christians. With regard to Ferdinand I, there is much less material. Abd al-Rahman was thrown from his horse and barely escapedwith a few survivors. 1. Otto decided to send a message containingsimilar sentiments of Islam to the caliph and chose a monk, John of Gortz,to deliver the letter. TheChristian forces tended to massacre or enslave entire villages, while theMoors developed such a reputation for brutality that Christian villageswould empty upon hearing the Abd al-Rahman's forces were approaching.[11] In going after the Christian kingdoms, however, Abd al-Rahman metwith trouble. European slaves had beenelevated to higher class status and Abd al-Rahman himself was probably moreEuropean than Arab.[1 ] In the early years of his reign, however, the Christian kingdoms weretoo weak and divided to pose a dire threat to al-Andulus. In the middle part of the Eighth Century, the Arabgovernor of the Maghrib taxed the Muslim Berbers in the fashion as theytaxed the Christians and enslaved their children. [11]Lane-Poole, 119-21; Scott, 583-85. The efforts of the Ummayadleadership to create a united Arab society were not entirely successful, asvarious regions often acted independently of Córdoba. By tradition, the title of"caliph" was the highest rank within Islam, denoting its holder as adefender if the Muslim faith and the leader of all "believers." Abd al-Rahman took this accolade seriously and held himself apart from the rest ofhumanity. History of the Dominion of the Arabs in Spain. At one point during this time, a large part of the coastof North Africa was paying tribute to him, contributing to the Treasuryrevenue used to build the fleet for domination of the Mediterranean.[14] In response to the Fatamid threat, and to establish his authoritywithin the kingdom, Abd al-Rahman assumed the title of caliph in 929. It was built outsideCórdoba, on a slope overlooking the Guadalquivir; as such, it resembledmore a walled town than a traditional palace. The palace and its trappings were intended to reflectthe magnificence of the caliphate and the new ascendancy of al-Andulus.Construction required thousands of workers and between thirty and fortyyears. [21]Read, 83-84. As city dwellers or sedentary tribesman, they had little desire to moveinto the cold and mountainous sections of northern Spain. [12]Read, 72; Scott, 587-88. A new Fatamid dynastyhad emerged there, espousing unorthodox religious beliefs and threateningthe security of al-Andulus, whose large Berber population was uniquelysusceptible to radical religious influences. Vol. Scott, History of the Moorish Empirein Europe, vol. The Moors of Spain. [26]Angus MacKay, Spain in the Middle Ages: From Frontier to empire,1 -15 (London: Macmillan, 1977), 8; Read, 81-82. A radical Muslim sectinspired a Berber revolt in North Africa and Spain at this time, but theBerbers were defeated in Spain by Syrian horsemen imported by the Arableaders. The large Christian population founditself in a delicate position, for although the Muslim leadership practicedtolerance for religion, Christians had to be careful not to provoke Muslimsover the subject of religion. Thestruggle between the two sides was precipitated not only by theexpansionist visions of individual leaders, but also by the conflict overreligion. The Reconquest of Spain. Local leaderswithin the kingdom and rich subjects would present such gifts in order togain influence within the caliphate and enter the small group of Abd al-Rahman's circle.[24] If Abd al-Rahman's caliphate seemed remote and inaccessible except tothose with the resources to bestow fine gifts, Abd al-Rahman could also goagainst type and display extraordinary magnanimity. As a result, theChristian provinces developed a spirit of independence which eventuallyaided the Christian kingdoms in the later Reconquest.[21] The major change the new title had on Abd al-Rahman was the increaseddistance between the ruler and his subjects. His main accomplishments were theextension of the Great Mosque at Córdoba and the acquisition of some4 , books of all types, including works on religion, philosophy, andscience. The first part of the paper will provide a generalbackground to the rule of Abd al-Rahman, including a brief discussion ofthe Muslim conquest of Spain. [6]J. [13]Read, 72-73; Scott, 588-95. After some preliminary scoutingexpeditions in the first few years of the Eighth Century, large expeditionswere landed in the Iberian Peninsula in 711 and 712. This was accomplished with little fuss. [1 ]Lane-Poole, 119. John refused toagree to this and a months-long stalemate ensued. Abd-Allah wasunable to collect taxes from these rebellious states and the Royal Treasurywas empty by the time he died in 912. Winning support from various factions, heoverthrew the governor of Spain and proclaimed himself emir in 756,asserting authority over the entire Peninsula. [9]Condé, 364-88; Read, 72; S. Abd al-Rahman fought the Fatamid both directly andindirectly. In the last years ofhis reign, several local governors and muwallads (Hispanic Muslims) feltthemselves to be powerful enough to rise up in revolt against the rule ofthe emirate. Beirut: Khayats, 1967.Lomax, Derek W. Iberians, Celts,Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans conquered and/or settled the regionbefore the beginning of Christianity. [22]Ibid., 74. Consequently, they themselves acquired power within the kingdomand many attained a status identical to that of the later janissaries ofthe Ottoman Empire. [5]Lomax, 21-23. B. London: Faber and Faber, 1974.Scott, S. [28]Ibid., 84; Condé, 459-62. Abd-Allah had assumed the emirate under suspiciouscircumstances. It was not unusual for emissaries to present gold,silver, raw silk (for the royal manufacturies), expensive robes and furs,perfumes, arrows, shields, suits of armor, male and female slaves, andhorses. Abd al-Rahman worked onthe sectarian schisms which existed within the Fatamid empire. [16]Condé, 417-19; Read, 74. This ancestry did not lessen Abdal-Rahman's position in Moorish society, for his father sprang from thesame sort of lineage. These minor rulers quickly began to war with each other andcivil war became the predominant state of affairs in Spain. Bohn, 1854), 293-332;Stanley Lane-Poole, The Moors in Spain (Beirut: Khayats, 1967), 94-98;Read, 67-69. He reversed the religious intolerance which had arisen underhis father and grandfather, much to the chagrin of conservative Muslims.He retained the orthodox Muslim religious outlook of his upbringing,rejecting the fanaticism of many Muslims in Spain.[8] As noted above, Moorish Spain was in virtual tatters by the time Abdal-Rahman became emir. Translated by Mrs. Jonathan Foster. Direct confrontations took place on the sea, with Abd al-Rahman's fleet vying for control of the Mediterranean. Finally, Otto wasconvinced to send a more conciliatory letter and he sent a new ambassador.But Abd al-Rahman insisted that the new letter be delivered by John ofGortz. Vol. 1 (London: Henry G. [7]Condé, 332-364; Lane-Poole, 98-1 7; Read, 69-7 . With the establishment of theemirate, Moorish Spain, or al-Andulus, became united under a single rulerand its prosperity gradually grew greater than that of any other westerncountry. Even more seriously, the soldiers whodid most of the fighting, and dying, were not Arabs but Berbers. When Muhammad died, in 886, his son, al-Mundhir, took overwhile engaged in a campaign to suppress one of these rebellions. TheHajib were the intermediaries through which people communicated with thecaliph, reflecting the tradition that the caliph was too remote and reveredto speak directly to his subjects. On one occasion theGerman Emperor, Otto I, complained to Abd al-Rahman of the piracy engagedin by certain Moors in Provence; Abd al-Rahman replied with a letter whichwas critical of Christianity. [8]Condé, 361-65; Read, 71. Note to Client It was impossible to find anywhere near fifteen sources on Abd al-Rahman in English. Abd al-Rahman apparently named it after a favorite concubine andhad a statue of a woman placed above the main gate. Condé, History of the Dominion of the Arabs in Spain, trans.Mrs. His devotion to knowledge and learning made many of the orthodoxMuslim leaders uneasy and they were delighted when his successor proved toas disinterested in intellectual pursuits as al-Hakam was interested.[28] Conclusion Abd al-Rahman established the caliphate in Spain and was one of thestrongest rulers of al-Andulus. B. The dry regions utilized dry farming methods familiar to theArabs; the more humid valleys supported intensive semi-tropicalcultivation. [27]Read, 82-83; M. As will be seen, themost serious challenges to the emirate came between 852 and 912, afterwhich Abd al-Rahman III united the kingdom under the new caliphate.[5] Life of Abd al-Rahman Abd al-Rahman III was the grandson of Abd-Allah, Emir of Muslim Spainfrom 888 to 912 A.D. Al-Mundhir lasted barely two years on the throne before he was apparentlypoisoned by his brother Abd-Allah.[6] Abd-Allah inherited all of the problems of his father and brother andwas unable to prevent them from growing. A. [14]Lane-Poole, 115-16; Read, 73; Scott, 58 -83. These individuals were loyal to the caliphbecause they knew that without him they would have never attained positionsof such importance and that the aristocratic families would never allowthem the acquisition of such authority. Thejustice itself was fairly impartial and the qadi administered it with ahigh degree of independence.[17] This civil administration was reconstructed on a smaller scalethroughout al-Andulus. Subsequently, hedefeated rebels in Bobastro, Badajoz, and Toledo. Problems with governing a stratifiedsociety, however, eventually led warring factions in Spain to seek alliesamongst the Muslims in North Africa.[1] As followers of a missionary religion, the Muslim leaders quicklydiscovered an opportunity to extend the domain of Islam into the westernportions of the European continent. [4]Lomax, 17-18; Read, 4 -59. Each believed its opponent to be heathen at best and evil atworst. The Arabstook the best land in Spain and relegated the Berbers to the bare plateauin central Spain. The caliphpossessed the power of life and death over his subjects and was theabsolute ruler over al-Andulus. The second part of the paper will examinethe life of Abd al-Rahman, focusing upon his military accomplishments andhis establishment of the caliphate in Spain. The top level contained thepalace itself and the administrative offices. It has been speculated that the Arabs and the Berbersliving in al-Andulus had abandoned their nomadic traditions and lifestyles. 1. 2) and Wasserstein, Rise and Fall of the Party-Kings: Politics andSociety in Islamic Spain - 1 2-1 86.----------------------- [1]Derek W. [15]Lane-Poole, 121-22; Read, 73-74. [17]Read, 83. The small remnants of his force retired to Córdobaand Abd al-Rahman never again led a fighting force in person.[12] The Christian ascendancy, however, did not survive the death ofRamiro II. Florian, The Moors of Spain (The Werner Company,191 ), 35. At the time of his father's death, al-Hakam was more than forty years oldand in frail health. Once he was securely in power,he decided to act quickly to bring unity and peace to his kingdom. London: Macmillan, 1977.Read, Jan. The third part of the paperwill discuss the government of Moorish Spain, looking at the caliphate andthe local government, and will briefly discuss the economy of Moorish Spainunder Abd al-Rahman. One such generalgained fame as a successful campaigner in North Africa and his daughterlater married al-Mansur, who ruled al-Andulus from 981 to 1 2.Apparently, the emasculation operation was not always successful.[19] The elevation of the eunuchs to levels of high status reflected Abdal-Rahman's distrust of the Arab aristocracy. Léon succumbed to internal feuding and all three kingdoms(Léon, Navarre, and Castile) were forced to recognize the suzerainty ofCórdoba under Abd al-Rahman. The young emir was most noted for hisintelligence and judgment, which were said to be uncommon for a man of hisyouthful age. History of the Moorish Empire in Europe. As a result, al-Rahman himself became more remote as hisprestige increased.[22] When the caliph received foreign emissaries, he purposely sought tooverawe them with the court's magnificence. Towards the end ofthis period of fighting, it became apparent that Abd al-Rahman's force wasweakening and losing ground to the Christian force commanded by Ramiro IIof Léon. Spain in the Middle Ages: From Frontier to empire, 1 - 15 . John submitted the letter in advance of a formalaudience with Abd al-Rahman; he was then told that an angry Abd al-Rahmanwould receive the emperor's presents but not the letter. London: Longman, 1978.MacKay, Angus. The capital of the empire became Córdoba, fromwhich the emir, and later the caliph, ruled. Theemissaries were forced to proceed from the gates of the city to the palaceunderneath this roof of swords, an experience which struck fear into most.At the gate of Madinat al-Zahra, the emissaries walked on a path coveredwith brocades, along which were stationed dignitaries seated in magnificentchairs at regular intervals. Mats were unrolled from thegates of Córdoba to the entrance of the Madinat al-Zahra, a distance ofsome three miles, along which were stationed a double rank of soldiers whoformed a roof over the pathway with their unsheathed swords. [23]Ibid., 75-76. [19]Ibid., 78-79; Scott, 6 6-6 7. After a time, these individualsacquired enough power and influence to take advantage of the slow decaywhich infected the central government of al-Andulus after the death of Abdal-Rahman. Neither side conducted itself in an especially chivalrousmanner during these campaigns, in spite of the cult of chivalry which wasblooming in northern Europe at the time. The production of wine was left largely to Christians,but it was consumed by everyone. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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