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Paper Abstract: Life, reign & military campaigns of & efforts to build Ottoman Empire by 15th Cent. European leader. Paper Introduction: Mehmed The Conqueror This paper will examine the life of Mehmed II, also known as Mehmed the Conqueror, who was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1451 to 1481. The paper will briefly discuss the background to Mehmed's reign and his family history. The main part of the paper will examine his military campaigns and his efforts to establish the Ottoman Empire as the leading world power of that time. The third part of the paper will discuss some of the domestic policies of Mehmed, and the last part will analyze his reign and his character. Mehmed was born in Edirne, the capital city of the Ottoman Empire, in 1432, the third son of Sultan Murad II. The identity of his mother has never been ascertained but all sources seem to agree that she was a European slave and some suggest that she was Jewish. During his ch Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. These grants eventually becamehereditary and the states became partially or wholly independent,especially when the Sultan was weak or succession to the throne was indispute.[2] The Ottoman Empire, however, recovered from these defeats. Indoing so, Mehmed seized control of the Black Sea coastal region of AsiaMinor and eventually dominated all trade in the Black Sea. Hickman. Several more years of fighting along the Balkancoast of the Adriatic Sea resulted in the subjugation of Venetianfortresses there. Individual states again began to assert their independencefrom the central Ottoman authority. The ruling prince of Walachia, however, decided toform an alliance with the new king of Hungary, Mathias Corvinus, againstMehmed. This policy had four basic elements.First, he had to create unity within his own government by eliminatingHalil. He enacted a law whichofficially sanctioned the practice, stating that it "behoove[d]" whicheverof his sons who inherited the sultanate to kill all his brothers "in theinterest of the world order."[5] Murad's death provided an opportunity for western forces to uniteagainst the Ottomans and regain what had been lost during the previouswars. Mehmed himself sponsored the construction of a new mosque andthe various institutions associated with it: travelers' lodgings, ahospital, an almshouse, and a college for instruction in the Islamic law,sciences, and medicine.[13] In spite of the widespread destruction and desecration of Christianchurches immediately after the siege, Mehmed ordered toleration for non-Muslim institutions thereafter. In this he was influenced by the non-Turk converts whocounseled him, such as Chihab-ed-Din Pasha and Zaganos Pasha. Venice finally made peace with Mehmed in 1479, afterOttoman raiders appeared within sight of the city. Traditional Islam was to be welded with Byzantine andOccidental cultural traditions and influences. He made sure that the GreekOrthodox Patriarch, the Armenian Patriarch, and the Jewish Chief Rabbi allresided in Istanbul. [14]Babinger, 1 4-1 7; Inalcik, "The Rise of the Ottoman Empire," 41-42; Iskowitz, 27-28; Kinross, 111-15. These were Mehmed's last major campaigns, for hedied a year later, on May 3, 1481, at the age of 49.[18] Although Mehmed was best known for his military adventures, he alsoinstituted many changes in civil administration of the Ottoman Empire. TheSeljuks extended their rule over the scattered Islamic states in the regionand united them in time to resist the Christian Crusades. This last accomplishment was ablow to Venice, the principal commercial rival of the Ottomans, and a signthat Murad wanted not only peace but dominance in the eastern MediterraneanSea. [17]Babinger, 215-37 ; Kinross, 131-37. Although many contemporaries and later historians attributed toMehmed the outlook of a truly cosmopolitan and even renaissance ruler, hisreal interest in Europe arose from a desire to fulfill the ancient goal ofconverting the known world to Islam, erecting an Islamic successor to theRoman Empire in the process. The policy which was resented the most, however, was theconfiscation of private property consecrated as pious foundations (wakfs).Mehmed reasoned that since the land had originally belonged to him it hadevolved into private domains and then wakfs through irregularities and thuscould be repossessed by him. Although Hassan was not entirely defeated, his forces were widelyspread out and he died in 1478, before any renewed action could be takenagainst the Ottomans. [7]Iskowitz, 25. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978.Collins, H. ----------------------- [1]Franz Babinger, Mehmed the Conqueror and his Time, ed. This policy affected wealthy families the most, since they hadconverted property into family wakfs in order to safeguard their positions. "The Rise of the Ottoman Turks and Its Historical Background." American Historical Review 37 (1932): 468-5 5.Wittek, Paul. Mehmed's other half-brother, Prince Alaeddin Ali, was made governorof Manisa at that same time. His reputation as a statesman spread throughout Europe and Asia,yet he was forced to fight wars to suppress disorder and gain advantagesover European rivals. After repossession, he granted the domains asfiefs to timar-holders in order to increase the size of his militarypotential. Vlad never confronted Mehmed's army directly, butharassed it with guerrilla tactics; in turn, Mehmed repaid Vlad's crueltyin kind, massacring all Walachians taken prisoner. "Civil Strife in the Ottoman Empire, 1481-15 3." The Journal of Modern History, 13 (December 1941): 449-66.Inalcik, Halil. Seljuk powerdeclined, however, in the 13th Century after their defeat and subjugationby the Mongols. Cook, 1 -53. Third, he had to attack and conquer Constantinople,not only to fulfill the traditional quest but also to cement the loyalty ofhis subjects by achieving a significant military victory. Fortresses were built on either side of the Bosporus Straits sothat Mehmed could control the Byzantine Black Sea trade and move his armiesfrom Anatolia to the European side of the Straits without interference.Very heavy artillery pieces were cast so that the walls of Constantinoplecould be bombarded with effect. His forces landed at Rhodes inJuly of 148 , on the same day that an Ottoman expedition landed at Otrantoin southern Italy. They wereopposed by Candarlioglu Halil Pasha, who was the scion of an old andpowerful Turkish family and who became Grand Vizier in 1439. Prince Vlad III was notorious for his cruelty and sadistic tastes;his contemporaries nicknamed him Tepes (the impaler) and Dracul (thedevil). [4]Kinross, 88; Wittek, 51; Norman Iskowitz, Ottoman Empire andIslamic Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 24-25. Under Mehmed, the Grand Vizier had somewhat morelimited duties than previously; Mehmed exercised complete control overfinal decisions of state and the Grand Vizier was his loyal instrument incarrying out these decisions. [12]Babinger, 93-97. Finally, he hadto make the traditions of holy war the guiding principles of the Ottomanstate; particularly relevant to Mehmed's policy was the principle of ghaza,acquiring non-Muslim territory and converting the population.[7] Rather than attempting to get rid of Halil immediately, Mehmedproceeded to establish his forces around Constantinople in order to preparea siege. [2]William L. Consequently, they were amenable to overtures from Pope Pius II,who asked that European powers assist the Bosnians in resisting Mehmed'saggression. [6]Babinger, 67-7 . The Palace library wasfilled with ancient Greek and Latin works and he allowed his portrait to bepainted by Italian artists, defying Islamic tradition which discouraged theportrayal of the human image. New coins were issuedseveral times during his reign, at which times old coins were withdrawn atonly 5/6 of their face value. Mehmed The Conqueror This paper will examine the life of Mehmed II, also known as Mehmedthe Conqueror, who was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1451 to 1481.The paper will briefly discuss the background to Mehmed's reign and hisfamily history. The third part of the paper will discuss some ofthe domestic policies of Mehmed, and the last part will analyze his reignand his character. Collins, "Hamlet-Turk,"The Spectator, 19 (May 1, 1953): 541. In 1439, however, Murad switched the twoappointments, sending Alaeddin Ali to Amsaya and Mehmed to Manisa. Byzantium issued calls for help fromEuropean powers, but received in reply little more than moral support.Although figures have never been accurately ascertained, the Ottoman armyvastly outnumbered Constantinople's defenders by the time Mehmed hadisolated the city in March of 1453. Hewaged war constantly throughout his reign in an effort to establish anIslamic successor to the Roman and Byzantine Empires. The corps was increased insize and remodelled to eliminate any disloyal elements. One brother, Prince Ahmed Celebi died in 1437 while governorof the city of Amasya; five-year-old Mehmed was appointed to take hisplace. These policies eventually led to severe political and social tensionswhich combined with ethnic rivalries to result in civil war after hisdeath.[2 ] Mehmed has long been considered one of the most broad-minded of allthe sultans. Langer and Robert P. After the taking of Constantinople, he allowed hissoldiers to rape, pillage, and plunder for three days, a time period whichseemed to be standard in the Muslim military tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976.Iskowitz, Norman. Mehmed marched into Trebizond, forcingthe armies of Uzun Hassan to retreat and splintering the alliance. On April 6, 1453, Mehmed declared thecity under siege and bombardment began. Members of thecorps were conscripted from the ablest groups of Christian boys interritories conquered by the Ottomans. Finally,on May 29, a massive assault was launched and the city walls were breached. Although these military activities suggest imperialambitions, Murad was really not a strong advocate of the imperialisticideas so prevalent in the Ottoman Empire at that time.[3] If his father had little in the way of imperialistic aspirations,Mehmed was different. [3]Babinger, 16-61; Kinross, 83-93; Paul Wittek, The Rise of theOttoman Empire (New York: Burt Franklin, 1938; repr., 1956), 5 . Upon realizing that the city was doomed, the Emperor Constantinepersonally joined the hopeless combat and eventually waded into the Ottomanattackers alone, armed with his sword; the last of the Byzantine emperorsdied fighting as a common soldier.[8] With the fall of Constantinople, Mehmed turned to the task ofreorganizing his government and army. Riggs. He waseventually replaced by Mahmud Pasha Angelovic, a descendent of a prominentSerbian family and the son of a Serbian woman who had been captured byTurkish soldiers and taken to Edirne as a slave. Needless to say, Halil quickly broughtattention to himself as being in opposition to Mehmed's policies.[4] When Murad died in 1451, Mehmed took steps to ensure that his reigncould not be legally challenged. Their power to do this was enhanced bythe Seljuk practice of granting territory in fief to followers of theSultan in return for military service. He sought to learn about thewest so that he could conquer and rule it more effectively. Venice agreed to pay a yearly fee for theprivilege of moving commerce into and out of all Ottoman towns andports.[17] In 148 , Mehmed decided to take the island of Rhodes from the Knightsof St. [16]Babinger, 2 2-2 8; Kinross, 13 -31. His stepmother, who was not a slave, hadborne Murad another son, who was reportedly eight months old at the time ofhis father's death. [19]Iskowitz, 54-55; Kinross, 139-42. TheVenetians were concerned that the Ottomans would usurp control over tradethroughout the eastern Mediterranean and disrupt Venetian trade with theFar East. He took an interest in all things western and sponsoredseveral western European artists and writers. WhenMehmed was eleven years of age, Alaeddin Ali was mysteriously strangledwhile in bed, leaving Mehmed as the heir apparent to Murad.[1] The Turks had moved into Anatolia during the 1 th Century, at whichtime they converted to Islam and established the Seljuk dynasty. The Ottoman Empire: the Classical Age, 13 -16 . These monopolies were leasedto private individuals to increase the income of the treasury; the peoplesuffered, however, from the artificially high prices and the lack ofcompetition. The fall of Halil and therise of Angelovic signified the future course of Mehmed's government. While it is true that those prisoners who showed special talentor ability were elevated to positions of importance within Ottoman society,those whom Mehmed found physically attractive were sent to the palace forhis personal pleasure. Mehmed the Conqueror and his Time. Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition. [11]Iskowitz, 26; Halil Inalcik, "The Rise of the Ottoman Empire," inA History of the Ottoman Empire to 173 , ed. Mehmed was born in Edirne, the capital city of the Ottoman Empire, in1432, the third son of Sultan Murad II. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972.Kinross, Lord. Edited by William S. [5]Babinger, 65-66; Halil Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire: the ClassicalAge, 13 -16 (New York: Praeger, 1973), 59. Christian churches received specialattention as janissaries stole that which could be moved and desecratedthat which could not. Indeed, so fearsome was Mehmed's reputation thatonly one of his opponents, Prince Vlad Dracul, could clearly be consideredmore cruel, and he has been immortalized in literature as a vampire.[21] In conclusion, Mehmed the Conqueror expanded and consolidated theOttoman Empire to a greater degree than any other sultan before him. Unable to supply a largegarrison without local assistance, most of the force was withdrawn and thetown was later abandoned. Mehmed went after Hassanwith a vengeance in 1472, defeating his forces at Bashkent in the spring of1473. The main part of the paper will examine his militarycampaigns and his efforts to establish the Ottoman Empire as the leadingworld power of that time. The problem was that western forces were not united in theirobjectives. New York: Burt Franklin, 1938; reprint, 1956. William S.Hickman, trans. Translated by Charles T. Within a year after the fall of Constantinople, headvanced into Serbia, which had long stood as a buffer state betweenHungary and the Ottomans. P. The city was repaired andwealthy individuals and families were ordered to construct new buildingsand homes. Mehmed was not content tosimply consolidate Ottoman control over the Islamic states, as had been hisfather. "Hamlet-Turk." The Spectator, 19 (May 1, 1953): 541.Fisher, Sydney Nettleton. All decisions made by thedivan had to receive the consent of Mehmed, who was given an account ofbusiness by the Grand Vizier.[19] The continuous military campaigns conducted by Mehmed and theextensive rebuilding of Istanbul required several economic measures whichwere none too popular with the Ottoman citizens. He achieved Ottomandominance in the Balkan peninsula and secured Anatolia from neighboringrivals. Ralph Manheim (Princeton: Princeton University Press,1978), 11-16; Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of theTurkish Empire (New York: Morrow Quill, 1977), 87-88. Mehmed himself entered the Hagia Sophia, the mainGreek Orthodox cathedral, and performed his afternoon devotions,transforming the building into a mosque. The Emperor of the Byzantine Empire, ConstantineXI, did not envision the possibility that Mehmed would break with hisfather's diplomatic policies and attack Constantinople almostimmediately.[6] Mehmed, on the other hand, had already devised a state policy whichwas aggressive and expansionist. [1 ]Babinger, 438-39, 448; Iskowitz, 26. [2 ]Babinger, 45 -59; Inalcik, "The Rise of the Ottoman Empire," 49-51; Iskowitz, 29; Sydney Nettleton Fisher, "Civil Strife in the OttomanEmpire, 1481-15 3," The Journal of Modern History, 13 (December 1941): 449-5 . Mehmed dreamed of a greater Ottoman Empire encompassing Asia andEurope. He was, however, a ruler and conqueror. John and to take the ports in southern Italy which had originallybeen controlled by the Byzantine Empire. Istanbul was to be the capital of a new OttomanEmpire, which itself was to be an extension of the old Byzantine and RomanEmpires; Mehmed saw himself as not only the Sultan of the Ottomans, butalso as the Caesar of the West.[14] In order to claim the title as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire,Mehmed set out to conquer the territory which had previously followedByzantine rule. He unsuccessfully laid siege to Constantinople in1422 and captured Thessaloniki in 143 . P. Blake, "The Rise of the OttomanTurks and Its Historical Background," American Historical Review 37 (1932):479, 487-91. M.A. The most talented andgifted were sent to the Sultan's palace, where they received specialeducation; the rest were sent to prominent families for conversion to Islamand education in Turkish customs and language. [18]Babinger, 387-99; Kinross, 136-38; Inalcik, "The Rise of theOttoman Empire," 45. The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. While his stepmother was grieving the loss of herhusband, Mehmed ordered her son drowned in his bath. BibliographyBabinger, Franz. M.A. Vlad led an army into Ottoman territory, destroying crops andvillages and massacring the population. After the destruction wascompleted, however, Mehmed turned the previously decaying city into thelargest and most vibrant metropolis in Europe and Asia since the fall ofRome.[12] Prior to the siege, the city's population had fallen to around 3 , inhabitants. During his childhood,Mehmed's two older half-brothers were placed in positions of importance bytheir father. Most of the early fighting took place in Albania and Bosnia,but as the years passed, alliances were made with Uzun Hassan to applypressure on the Ottomans from the east as well. Mehmed I,grandfather of Mehmed the Conqueror, began the task of reuniting Ottomanstates and Murad virtually completed the task. He matured in an environment which yearned for thedream of Old Islam: the control of Constantinople and the acquisition ofnon-Muslim lands. In doing so, hecarried on a tradition which had become an unofficial part of Ottomansuccession: murdering all rival heirs to the throne. When the Khanof the Golden Horde accepted status as an Ottoman vassal in 1475, theOttomans gained control of the Black Sea trading routes linking Anatoliawith Russia, Central Asia, and Europe.[15] In 1461, Mehmed's attention was drawn back to the Balkan peninsula,which he planned to use as a base for advances further west into Europe.North of the Danube River lay the province of Walachia, which Mehmed waswilling leave alone so long as it paid tribute and did not take up armsagainst the Ottomans. The town survivors, however, fled and refusedto return to live under Ottoman occupation. The identity of his mother hasnever been ascertained but all sources seem to agree that she was aEuropean slave and some suggest that she was Jewish. Those who had been educated at thepalace were marked for imperial service and eventually formed the core ofthe imperial administration and bureaucracy. Charles T. Late in hisreign, Mehmed ceased to personally conduct meetings of the divan (council),but had a small grille cut into the wall of the council chamber so that hecould periodically listen in on the meetings and intervene when necessary.The divan, under the direction of the Grand Vizier, was responsible fordealing with all governmental matters and the Grand Vizier effectivelyconducted the everyday business of the state. He realized the long-standing Islamic dream of conqueringConstantinople and turning it into the capital of the Ottoman Empire, whilealso revitalizing the decaying city and turning it into a center ofEuropean and Islamic culture. On the other hand, the Grand Vizier wasgiven much greater authority to carry out these decisions. Mehmed ordered that the city be repopulated, encouraging theforced immigration of people with skills needed in a large city. Hehad inherited the system of viziers from previous Sultans but he adjustedtheir scope of authority. Cook (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1976), 41-42. He was noexception to the cruel tradition of authoritarian leadership whichprevailed in his time. The early attempts at storming thecity walls failed, with the Ottomans suffering heavy casualties. New York: Praeger, 1973.--------. Many ofthe Byzantine inhabitants who had been enslaved after the siege wererelocated back to the city; other involuntary immigrants came from citieswhich were conquered after Constantinople. While previous sultans hadsought imperial order through warfare, Murad tried to retain order throughpeace. Under the terms of thepeace agreement, the Italian city-state ceded all territories it hadoccupied while Mehmed returned the towns and territories occupied inAlbania, Morea, and Dalmatia. Just days after the city was taken,the Grand Vizier Halil was arrested; he was executed on July 1 . Few western rulers thought that the new Sultan was animmediate threat to them. "The Rise of the Ottoman Empire." In A History of the Ottoman Empire to 173 , ed. He aimed toestablish an Islamic empire in the west and his admiration for western artand literature amounted to nothing more than admiration. Emperor David, the Grand Commene and ruler of theTrebizond Empire, declared an alliance with the Turcoman prince UzunHassan, who already led a powerful opposition to the Ottomans in easternAnatolia and had allied himself with the princes of Sinope and Karamaniaand the Christian Georgian kings. The Rise of the Ottoman Empire. [8]Babinger, 76-92; Kritovoulos, History of Mehmed the Conqueror,trans. History of Mehmed the Conqueror. Men, women, andchildren were taken as slaves; women of all ages and young boys were usedas objects for sexual gratification. Translated by Ralph Manheim. All of the Greek peninsula came under Ottoman rule by 146 . In a drive to capture Belgrade, however, heoverstretched his forces and was decisively defeated outside the city inJuly of 1456. As will be seen below, Mehmed pursued thisgoal by alternating campaigns in Anatolia with advances in Europe, mainlyin the Balkans.[11] When Mehmed's troops entered Constantinople on the 29th of May, theyproceeded to pillage and plunder the city for three days, looting anythingof value and destroying much of which could not be taken. But Mehmed later tookthe tradition one step further by codifying it. [9]Babinger, 1 2-16; Iskowitz, 26. In such a fashion did he concentratepower in his own hands.[9] Mehmed also reorganized the janissary corps, as had been hisintention prior to the fall of Constantinople. Second, he had to reorganize the janissaries in order to eliminateany divisive elements and ensure that the janissary corps was completelyloyal to his person. The Hungarian victory proved to be only a temporary triumph,for the Hungarian forces were ravaged by plague within a few months of thebattle and Serbia became divided into pro-Hungarian and pro-Ottomanfactions. Provincial monopolies were established onstaples such as salt, candle wax, and soap. They were taken from their homes inlevies which were conducted every five years and isolated from the rest ofsociety while they received training and education. While some leaders wanted to end Ottoman influence in easternEurope, others wanted to gain territory for themselves. New York: Morrow Quill, 1977.Kritovoulos. The force at Otranto had better fortune,taking the town by surprise. Serbia fell to Mehmed in 1459, a year after he had taken Athens. Blake. His goal was to turn Istanbul, asConstantinople was renamed, into a cultural and religious capital for thewhole world. Indeed, a schismstill existed between the Roman and Greek Orthodox churches and rulers inneither camp wanted to heal this split simply for the purpose of attackingthe Ottomans. [15]Babinger, 129-96; Kinross, 123-3 ; Iskowitz, 27. When Muradtemporarily abdicated the throne in favor of Mehmed in 1445, Halil imploredhim to return and may have instigated a revolt amongst the Janissaries inEdirne to cement his point. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954; reprint, Westport: Greenwood Press, 197 .Langer, William L., and Robert P. [13]Iskowitz, 27-28. [21]Inalcik, The Ottoman Empire, 181; H. Those inhabitantsof conquered territories who were not put to the sword were routinelyenslaved. He next wentafter the Greek empire of Trebizond, determined to eliminate any Greekclaim to Byzantine rule. After a few years they werereassembled in barracks for military training, after which they formallybecame members of the janissary corps. Although the city of Rhodes was virtually ruined duringthe ensuing siege and battle, the Knights beat back the Ottoman soldiers,inflicting very heavy casualties. Similarly, Murad conducted extensive campaigns in the Balkans untilhis death in 1451. His opening of Turkey to Renaissance art and literature wasoften presented as evidence that he was truly different from the sultanswho preceded him. When Mehmed led an Ottoman forceinto Walachia, he came across a "forest of corpses," the rotting remains ofsome 2 , Ottomans and Bulgarians who had been impaled and crucified forVlad's entertainment. Riggs (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954;repr., Westport: Greenwood Press, 197 ), 18-71. Vlad could not resistMehmed's army, however, and subsequently retreated into Transylvania.Walachia was brought under Ottoman control and ruled by Vlad's brother,Radu, who had lived in the Sultan's court as Mehmed's slave and reputedlover.[16] Mehmed's longest war was with Venice, lasting from 1463-79. For some two centuries afterMehmed's death, virtually every high-ranking state official and generalcame from this pool of men who had been enslaved as young boys.[1 ] The final objective of Mehmed's foreign policy, the emphasis onghaza, was pursued for the rest of his reign. Theold Ottoman families lost their power in the government and Mehmedhenceforth filled the highest government posts with his personal slaves,who owed allegiance only to him. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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