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Essay Subject: Focuses on the last half of the 19th Cent. Compares two nation-states' growth, unification, nationalism, leadership, historical significance.... More...

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Paper Abstract: Focuses on the last half of the 19th Cent. Compares two nation-states' growth, unification, nationalism, leadership, historical significance. Paper Introduction: During the second half of the nineteenth century, and specifically between 1859 and 1871, a change came over Europe as several different nation states unified into larger empires more in keeping with the nations we know in this century. During this period, a new German Empire was formed, as well as a unified kingdom of Italy and a Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. This brought about a major change in the balance of political power in Europe and prepared the way for the tensions between the new nation-states during the last years of the nineteenth century and into the first two decades of the twentieth century. The changes are described by historians as part of even more far-reaching changes taking place in technology, transportation, and communication at the same time: All these disparate events reflected profound changes Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Their success effectively ended attempts to set up federations of central European and Italian states.[1 ]Cavour, allied with Napoleon III, instigated a war against Austria in 1859and then made use of the patriotic Garibaldi to unite the southern region.In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II, then king in Sardinia, became king of an Italyunited except for Rome and Venetia, both to be added within a decade.Bismarck in Germany succeeded in much the same way by leading a militarizedPrussia and by provoking wars with Denmark in 1864, Austria in 1866, andFrance in 187 . Of particular importance was his act of isolating anddefeating Austria to gain Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt forPrussia. [6]Rinn S. German nationalists were faced withthese realities and suffered a sense of helplessness as a consequence.Even when their hopes were revived, they looked for the most part toward aliberalized Prussia to carry them through to a different system. [3]Boyd C. In general the revolutionary movement shifted from the older republic nationalism to the newer forms of Marxian socialism, anarchism or syndicalism.[8] For the German states, the birth of nationalism came with therevolution of 1848. Italy had always been a unit geographically andwas also unified by religious belief; she also had had a common Italianlanguage and culture since the time of Dante. In Italy, themovement toward unification had taken heart from the success in 1831 if theFrench uprising against the Restoration, the catalyst for a series ofrevolts in northern Italy and the papal states. The creation of an all-German and an all-Italian state meant brakingthe power of Austria, rendering Russia at least temporarily ineffective,and overthrowing or intimidating those German and Italian states whichrefused to surrender their sovereignty.[5] The wars alone were notresponsible for the movement toward unification, and indeed in both Germanyan Italy there had been growing pressures for unification and thedevelopment of new nation-states for some time. Politically, all represented the advancing principle of the nation-state.[1]A comparison of the nation-states of Germany and Italy during the last halfof the nineteenth century will show how these forces were arrayed and whateffects they had on the development of nationalistic feelings in these andother countries of Europe. Nationalism: Myth and Reality. They saw other areas which they considered "unredeemedItaly." The new Italy was parliamentary, but it was not democratic andwould not be until 1912. Italy: A Country Study. Palmer and Joel Colton, A History of the Modern World (NewYork: Alfred A. The revolutionary agitation continued unabatedeven after unification, perhaps because so many could not vote or otherwiseparticipate in the new government: Garibaldi himself, in the 186 s, made two more attempts to seize Rome by violence. There, Prussiacontrolled there military forces and was dominant. Shafer, Nationalism: Myth and Reality (New York: Harcourt,Brace & World, 1955), 137. [5]Palmer and Colton, 51 . Cavour wanted only to strengthen his small state of Sardinia whileBismarck wanted to strengthen Prussia: To accomplish their ends, however, both led, had to lead national crusades that ended in the creation of modern Italy and Germany. It had also imbued its subjectswith a conservatism that tended to keep the people together.[13] The leadership of Italy was also conservative, though in a differentway. This brought about a major change in the balance ofpolitical power in Europe and prepared the way for the tensions between thenew nation-states during the last years of the nineteenth century and intothe first two decades of the twentieth century. It wouldbe left to Bismarck to turn their thinking into a different channel and tosubordinate the ambitions of conservative Prussia to unite and dominateGermany.[9] The leadership of Bismarck in Germany corresponded to that of Cavourin Italy, and they united their respective nations and established nationalgovernments. New York: The Macmillan Company, 196 .Kohn, Hans. Passant, A Short History of Germany 1815-1945 (Cambridge at theUniversity Press, 1959), 4 -41. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972.Shinn, Rinn S. [8]Palmer and Colton, 518. It was considered inevitable that sooner or later this empirewould disintegrate and be replaced by a collection of national states, suchas had happened in western Europe. Bismarck then isolatedand defeated france to unite all the Germanies except Austria into theGerman Empire, proclaimed at Versailles in 1871. Knopf, 196 ), 5 8-5 9. [12]Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins andBackground (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1944), 572. The changes are describedby historians as part of even more far-reaching changes taking place intechnology, transportation, and communication at the same time: All these disparate events reflected profound changes brought in by the railroad, steamship, and telegraph, which made the communication of ideas, exchange of goods, and movement of people over wide areas more frequent and easier than ever before. The population must sense that it belongsto a community, that the government is their government, and that outsidersare "foreign." The consolidation of the nation-states meant first theunion of pre-existing states, and second the creation of new ties betweenthe government and the governed.[2] The disunited Germanies came together as a nation-state in 1871,though it was not complete and did not remove all of the inter-statetensions that had existed before: Although German political disunity would continue, the French conquests and oppression in many of the Germanies, including Prussia and Austria, stimulated a national patriotism that finally achieved its goal of an independent German nation in 1871.[3]The Italian case was somewhat different. There had been a vague and tenuous nationalconsciousness for centuries, but unification under the aegis of what iscalled the risorgimento brought together the many cities and provinces ofItaly into a single state.[4] The unification of Germany and Italy was realized only in a series ofwars. The numerous peoples of theEmpire had come to prize their distinctive cultural nationalism, and nowthat was supplemented and fortified by some degree of politicalnationalism. The development of theconsolidated nation-state began with the ferment of the late eighteenthcentury and such actions as the French Revolution and the Napoleonicdomination of Europe. Washington, D.C.: The American University, 1985.Smith, Dennis Mack. During this period, a new German Empire wasformed, as well as a unified kingdom of Italy and a Dual Monarchy ofAustria-Hungary. At the sametime, this was only the culmination of a process started in the previouscentury as these same nations struggled to find a sense of statehood rootedin morality: Thus all Europe at the end of the eighteenth century passed through a deep crisis, a search for regeneration, for better foundations of social life, for new concepts of public and private morality. The support for the government remained dependent on a very narrow elite: The alienation of the political system from the masses thus became institutionalized, leading parliament, almost totally cut off from society, into internal political maneuverings and sometimes surreal foreign policy gestures.[14]Thus for both Italy and Germany, the closing decades of the nineteenthcentury were a time of uncertainty in spite of unification, a time wheneach may have thought its unification was only temporary. [14]Shinn, 35.----------------------- 11 Shinn, Italy: A Country Study (Washington, D.C.: TheAmerican University, 1985), 25-27. The impasse between the Church and the government created aproblem of conscience for Italian Catholics and generated a politicalcrisis for the government. Shafer, Faces of Nationalism: New Realities and Old Myths(New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972), 149. While the south had wantedto be included and while there were political advantages to having thesouth part of the union, enthusiasm in the south dissolved under theexcessive burdens of taxation, leading to wholesale brigandage as arebellion. The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background. A Short History of Germany 1815-1945. Thedevelopment of a nation-state required that there be a people who thoughtof themselves as a people and not as a collection of human beings whohappen to be in the same area. [7]Ibid., 28-29. The subject peoples together outnumbered theGermans and the Magyars combined, and their numbers were further enlargedwith the empire's military occupation of the Ottoman provinces in 1878,with Bosnia-Herzegovina being annexed in 19 8. Italy: A Modern History. Palmer and Joel Colton, A History of the Modern World (New York: Alfred A. They were known as the right or center-right, andthey were dedicated to national stability, the consolidation of acentralized state administration, and the perpetuation of a free-marketeconomy. In both cases, the two men were actually more ardentfederalists, but federalism was swept aside in the rush to the nation-state. At thesame time, a federation of northern Italian states was created withHabsburg interests intact. [9]E.J. Before 186 there were only two great nation-states, Great Britainand France. Spain appeared united on the map, but in truth it wasinternally divided. [11]Ibid., 15 . These efforts were frustrated in Germany, Italy, andCentral Europe in the early part of the nineteenth century. The nationalist wave passing through Italy was named therisorgimento, or rebirth.[6] The founding of the Italian nation-state came about after a warbetween napoleon III and Austria, with Napoleon III the victor at a greatcost. During the second half of the nineteenth century, and specificallybetween 1859 and 1871, a change came over Europe as several differentnation states unified into larger empires more in keeping with the nationswe know in this century. [13]Carlton J.H. [4]Dennis Mack Smith, Italy: A Modern History (Ann Arbor: TheUniversity of Michigan Press, 1969), 5-6. Italy had been under foreigndomination for centuries. the crisis had been resolved before then among the English people, both in Great Britain and in America: this gave them their unique strength and their exemplary rank.[12] The Austrian Empire was a prime example of the imperial, nonnationalstate, and it would give way to the nation-state to follow after beingdefeated by Prussia. The morecharacteristic shape of European political organization at the time tookthe form of small states comprising fragments of a nation, and theseincluded the small states found strewn across the middle of Europe, such asHanover, Baden, Sardinia, Tuscany, or the Two Sicilies; or large sprawlingempires made up of all sorts of peoples and ruled from afar by dynastiesand bureaucracies, such as the Romanov, Hapsburg, and Ottoman empires.Between 186 and 187 , there would be a change so that since that time, thenation-state has been the predominant form. This did not happen until well into thetwentieth century. The failure of unificationin Germany early in the century has already been noted. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1944.Passant, E.J. He was then able to create a North German Confederation composedof all the German states north of the Main River. The tensions in the new state of Italy were much more based onreligion than nationalist questions, and the annexation of Rome infuriatedthe papacy, which vowed to use all its resources to resist the state.Settling relations with the Church would occupy the government for almost6 years. Hayes, Nationalism: A Religion (New York: TheMacmillan Company, 196 ), 117. BibliographyHayes, Carlton J.H. The process of nation-buildingresulted in unified nations, nations tested by civil war, nations creatinga national identity and a people who accepted that identity. These were quickly putdown, however. The reason this was so in the case of the remnants ofthe Austro-Hungarian Empire was that the Empire represented a continuationof the ancient Roman Empire and was thus a political and social entity mucholder than any existing national state. The liberal-nationalists had also suffered dissension intheir ranks, and such divisions contributed to their overall failure. There were also some tensions between the southand the north, regions which had been brought into the Italian state underdifferent auspices and for different reasons. [2]Ibid., 5 9-51 . Knopf, 196 ), 5 8-5 9.Shafer, Boyd C. Cambridge at the University Press, 1959.R.R. Cavour died in 1861, and his successors tried to continue hispolicies of moderation. The war with Austria hod also startedsuccessful rebellions in the satellite states and in the papal states.Garibaldi brought the south into the Kingdom of Italy.[7] There were persistent problems after unification, however, and indeedmany pronounced nationalists refused to believe that Italian unity had beenaccomplished. The Austro-Hungarian empire contained a variety ofnationalities mixed together. Austria and Prussia were subject to rivalries that hadprevented national union, and the ascension of multi-national Austria hadseemed to postpone indefinitely the dream of a united German state.Neither the rules of Austria and Prussia nor those of the smaller statesseemed at all willing to cede their power and privileges in the cause ofnationalism. Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Switzerland, andthe Netherlands were small and peripheral nation-states. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1969.----------------------- [1]R.R. Nationalism: A Religion. Nationalismcreated tensions throughout Europe that would culminate in World War I. Faces of Nationalism: New Realities and Old Myths. The subsequent treaty split Lombardy-Venetia so that Lombardy wassurrendered to France, while Venetia remained in Austrian hands. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1955.Shafer, Boyd C. A civil war resulted, and the subsequent insensitivity of thepolitical elites and the closed nature of the political system militatedagainst the new state in nurturing a base of support in the larger society. [1 ]Boyd C. To make fully developed and unified nations of the varied peoples in Italy and Germany took another half century or more, and was perhaps not yet realized when Italy and Germany became authoritarian states under Mussolini and Hitler.[11] Many historians emphasize that the processes taking place in Italyand Germany only reflected larger forces affecting other European regionsas well as Canada and the United States. Neither the Italian northe German peoples were immediately fully united, however,: While Italian and German leaders had established political and territorial unity, while Italian and German were the common languages, and while there were cultures that could rightly be called Italian and German, older loyalties, provincial and class, still existed. Italy was not a politicalentity until 1861. Still, the sentiment for unification was widespread amongmembers of the middle class who would gain a good deal with the overthrowof the foreign monarchs; the movement had not yet seized the imagination ofthe masses. After 1867, the Germans and Magyarsdominated jointly, the one in the Austrian half of the empire and the otherin the Hungarian half. Theonly hope for success lay in a great national uprising to depose theexisting rulers of Germany, but the social structure militated against any"French Revolution" on German soil. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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