BICULTURAL/BILINGUAL EDUCATION.   Term Paper ID:19884 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Focuses on special education students. Assessment, culture, biases, language issues, role of community, techniques.... More...

29 Pages / 6525 Words 24 sources, 45 Citations, APA Format $100.00 Return to List of Papers

Paper Abstract: Focuses on special education students. Assessment, culture, biases, language issues, role of community, techniques. Paper Introduction: BICULTURAL/BILINGUAL EDUCATION FOR THE SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENT Introduction The 1980 Census (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1984) reports that 79 million school-age children are non-native English speakers; of these, 12 percent or approximately 948,000 children are also believed to have special education needs. Bilingual/Bicultural Special Education (individually designed special education programs which use the home language and culture of students as instructional foundation) is designed to meet the needs of these students. The purpose of this report is to describe the contemporary status of Bicultural/Bilingual education for the special education student in America. To this end, the report reviews six areas of pertinent research related to the bilingual special Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Bureau of the Census (1984). The cultural difficulties faced by bilingual students have beensuccinctly delineated by Carrasquillo (199 ) who states: Adjustment to two cultures can be especially difficult for students. (8) Different cultures have long been associated with differentlearning styles; however, bilingual educators and bilingual specialeducators have noted that American schools frequently failed to reflectthese differences through the use of diverse instructional strategies basedon the fact of different learning styles. (2) Aptitude and Intelligence Testing Information - A more preciseevaluation of students' intellectual functioning is made at the diagnosticlevel of testing. According to Cloud (199 ), theseare: (1) language proficiency testing used to identify bilingualism; and(2) multidisciplinary team assessment used to identify the nature of thestudents' handicap(s) as well as to decide on appropriate servicestrategies and delivery.Of multidisciplinary team testing, Cloud points out that assessment in thisarea is used not only to identify special needs students but also toformulate short-term instructional objectives and to suggest ESL teachingstrategies and curricula. Taylor (ed.), Treatment of communication disorders in culturally and linguistically diverse populations. Suspancheck (1989) has noted that there are five primary requirementsof all ESL teachers without which second-language learning will not beeffectively acquired. & Cervantes, H.T. Because of the bicultural/bilingual nature of students,there is an emphasis on using tests with psychometric properties thatbetter account for the linguistic, cultural and experiential background ofminority students. Further, the unity of the nation as Americans may be suffering. 198 Census of Population, Chapter D, Detailed Population Characteristics, Part I, U.S. In O.L. He recommends field trips to these events.Similarly, many communities have special areas devoted to preserving thememory of a way of life lived by certain ethnic groups when they first cameto America (e.g. The new vision insists that war is no longer a relevant test. (Glazer, 1981, p.159). Theauthors feel that these activities should be low-context activities such asreading a library book. & Collier, C. Delpit (1988) has noted that discussion of any pedagogical issues, bethese in bilingual special education or in education in general, is reallyincomplete without an understanding of cultural differences and the powerattendant to these differences in the educational system. However, Westby and Rouse feel that in class, teacher-studentinteraction should contain a combination of low and high-contextactivities; this because language development occurs as one uses materialsand objects in combination with oral and written language. Primarilythis work involves playing games and conducting simple conversations withstudents in the second language. For example, in disciplining Hispanic students, teachers mightrefer to the student as "mijito", a term of endearment frequently used byHispanics to convey a sense of fondness means "my son." In this way, thesting can be taken out of disciplinary action. She recommends that, if possible, teachers should attemptto make this setting as similar to the children's familiar cultural settingas possible. (1982). For this reason, the authors recommend that this "therapy" beprovided in the context of cultural values, attitudes and wishes regardinglanguage learning and overcoming of language disorders. These authors note that many children learninga second language are going through a traumatic period of acculturation.Therefore, teachers are not merely providing instruction, they are in asense providing these children with therapy; that is, they are providingthem with an intervention designed to help them adjust to the acculturationprocess. Language As noted in the assessment section of this report, identifying levelsof students' first and second language learning is an important initialphase of bilingual/bicultural special education. As part of the effort to provide comprehensibleinstruction, Krashen recommends that teachers conduct frequentcomprehension checks by asking students questions. Olvera Street, Solvang, etc.). (5) Academic Achievement Information - This testing is aimed atestablishing entry level performance indicators in reading, mathematics,and other selected content areas. At these meetings, parents can be oriented to the AmericanEducation system and its rationale for special education services. (3) Bilingual Special Education Teachers Observe Values and Norms ofthe Home Culture - ESL teachers examine the underlying values of theirinstruction to make sure that they do not convey values and/or norms thatare in conflict with students' home culture. Harvard Educational Review, 58(3), 28 -298.Figueroa, R.A. (4) Bilingual Special Education Teachers Use Information from LimitedEnglish Proficient Students' Native Cultures - Instruction is oftenmaximally effective when teachers base it on information about the culture. He citesthe following changes in schools: (1). Culture Banks (1988) has noted that the core meaning of the term "culture"consists of traditional ideas and values with which a given groupidentifies. Doing so will provide students with a low-anxiety environmentwithin which to learn. Treatment of communication disorders in culturally and linguistically diverse populations. 2. Rivers (1987) also suggests that adults attempt to provide goodlanguage models for students by exposing children to such institutions asschools, churches, scouts, and other youth groups. In S.H. (1986). The next section of the review examined publications related tostudents' language learning. Another recommendation for considering students' cultural needs thatis recommended by Hoover and Collier is the examination of instructionalstrategies for relevance to children's acculturation experiences. To facilitate thistransfer, he recommends that teachers guide students through acquisition ofreading and writing skills, assisting them to see that all they are doingis really transferring skills they already know. In response to this concern, schoolshave designed and implemented ethnic studies courses that are ideologicallybased. Not only do suchorganizations model good language, they also model good citizenry andprosocial behavior. In Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework. Cervantes, (eds.), The Bilingual special education interface (2nd ed.) Columbus, OH: Merrill.Tikunoff, W.J. Hoover and Collier also note that adapted materials should bedesigned to include culturally appropriate motivation and relevance.Factors, variables, events, and situations that might motivate dominantculture students to succeed in school can be very different for students ofanother culture. Figueroa explainsthat this sort of assessment is, essentially, directed toward determiningnorms for bilingual students against which a specific student can be judgedin a fair and objective manner. (3) Language Performance Data - Observation and testing in this areaincludes arriving at such determinations as: the language spoken in thehome, the child's language use pattern, proficiency in native language,proficiency in second language, and the child's language preference. (6) Emotional Adjustment Information - Parent-child interview,observation, and interview of pertinent others is often used to determinestudents' psychoemotional status. Mediation of instruction to obtain equality of effectiveness. Glazer provides an example of his point in an examination of abilingual/bicultural court-order program for Spanish-speaking children inNew York. However, today, many schoolsattempt to incorporate their knowledge of a culture and its particularstyles of learning when developing instructional principles and programs. (1988). Tikunoff (1987) states that one way in which successful bilingualspecial education programs take student culture into account is ininstruction. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Cummins, J. computer hardware and software) will emerge tomeet the needs revealed by improved testing and assessment procedures. Finally, the relevance of culturefor shaping the pedagogical concerns of American Education in general andBilingual Special Education in particular was discussed. These children spend almost the entire day learning in Spanishas a result of the court-order. BICULTURAL/BILINGUAL EDUCATION FOR THE SPECIAL EDUCATION STUDENT Introduction The 198 Census (U.S. The first was the issue of whether it was wiseto provide English immersion instruction or to provide instruction which,in its early stages, primarily used the home language and only graduallyshifted toward more English speaking. Since students also havespecial needs, Hoover and Collier point out that teachers need to considersuch matters as the degree of field-independence or field-sensitivitynecessary for students to handle adapted materials. Most of these tests have beendesigned to be culture-free and based on universal developmental standards. Management of communicatively handicapped Hispanic American children. There are codes or rules for participating in power. Cultural assessment was discussed interms of its impact on providing students with maximal ESL learning. Perhaps it is not. Banks notes that older students can takeadvantage of public documents (e.g. A third function of cultural assessment is that of remediation. Examples ofsuch activities include making cookies from a recipe and talking about thecalendar. Each of these requirements are said to be means oftaking both first- and second-language proficiency levels into account.Specifically, she states that teachers need to: (1) understand the natureof language and communication processes in general; (2) understand bothfirst- and second-language acquisition processes; (3) understand thecognitive and language demands of their particular classrooms; (4) knowvarious approaches to second language learning and acquisition; and (5) beable to apply the principles of the various approaches in their ownclassrooms. It was also noted thatsuch learning activities have the potential for not only facilitatingstudent learning but also for increasing the richness of life for communitymembers, particularly senior citizens. In otherwords, English should not be taught as a "preferred" language over the homelanguage. Topics in Language Disorders, 5(4), 29-41.Wong, F.L. Through interaction with the local community, studentscan learn about the ethnic distribution of the city, housing issues, andpolitical representation. (1987). However, theystate that, over time, efforts should be directed toward assisting studentsto become more comfortable with the culture of the public school.Regarding these efforts, Hoover and Collier (1986) state: Depending on the degree of experience and familiarity with particular stimuli in the instructional setting, the teacher will need to adapt the manner in which students are introduced to new settings. Hoover and Collier (1986) also point out that the instructionalsetting should be compatible with students' home culture. They note thatstudents are frequently more motivated when language situations and formsare based on student needs, desires, and/or interests. Areas needing improvement weredelineated. Baecher, (eds.), Teaching the bilingual special eduction student. Like Krashen, Seymour (1986) feels that a pivotal element in secondlanguage learning is communication. The authors assert that one currently limiting factor inbilingual/bicultural special education is the plethora of assessment models(e.g. (1987). 3. (1983). Glazer also notes that people espousing cultural pluralism as anideology are viewing the purpose and function of American education in adecidedly different manner than it has previously been viewed. For example, among orientalstudents, losing face causes embarrassment, therefore, teachers will oftenexplain their instructions and the need to follow them explicitly as amatter of losing face. In Best Practices in School Psychology (rest of reference not provided in xeroxed materials).Hoover, J.J. San Diego: College-Hill Press.Delpit, L.D. (1982). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Saville-Troike, M. San Diego: College-Hill Press.Taylor, O.L. Moreover, such classes have special relevance for the bilingualspecial education student who often is discriminated against not onlybecause of biculturalism but also because of his or her handicaps. Planning and implementing an English as a second language program. Several methods and recommendations foraccommodating students' existing levels of first- and second-languageproficiency were delineated and discussed. (5) Cognitive Development Information - Frequently, district-designedtests are used to collect this information; this form of assessmentinvolves arriving at determinations about children's general knowledge,thinking skills, and use of basic concepts. School Changes Reflective of Bilingual Special Education Concerns According to Banks (1988), American schools have reflected in bothpolicy and programs, the concerns of bilingual special educators. In addition, students can be taught how to ask nativespeakers for help. Baca and Cervantes (1989) have noted that while current educationalmethods of assessment are indeed better than those used a few decades ago,there is room for improvement. Could such a nation, one wonders, have fought World War I? Several publications haveaddressed the language of the student as part of instructional efforts insecond language learning. (1989). Further, Krashen (1982) states that input has to be concrete anddevoid of slang or idioms. The purpose of this report is to describe the contemporary status ofBicultural/Bilingual education for the special education student inAmerica. Frequently findings will be different depending upon these differentmodels because, depending upon the model utilized by a district and/orschool, selected tests will reflect different educational assumptions.According to Barona and Santos de Barona (1987), assessment will improve asthese diverse models are integrated into a single multicultural model withmore comprehensive yet more precise and statistically reliable eligibilitycriteria. Westby and Rouse (1985) have formulated a number of recommendationsinvolving taking students' language levels into account in second-languagelearning. Fradd & W.J. (5) Today school programs include a variety of programs designed toreduce prejudice and racism; similarly attempts have been made to makecurriculum materials and examinations free of racially/ethnically biasedstereotypes. The bilingual special education interface. A model for the assessment of limited English proficient students referred for special education services. It is recommendedthat teachers do not prohibit students from doing this as it facilitatesstudents' comprehension in instances where their vocabulary in the secondlanguage is insufficient for comprehensively thinking a matter through. (Carrasquillo, 199 , p.1 )Successful bilingual special education programs take differences instudents' home culture and the culture of their schools into account in thedesign and implementation of ESL special education instruction, materials,curricula, and activities. Also, banks notes that a number of plays and music and movies showingin community theatres and auditoriums dramatize events and situationsrelated to different ethnic groups (e.g. Language acquisition and the bilingual exceptional child. Moreover, because of their political affiliationand connections, such program often vary depending upon which party iscurrently in power. Fradd & W.J. Thiscan be accomplished by working with students on how to start, maintain, andend conversations. The rules of the culture of power are a reflection of the rules ofthe culture of those who have the power. The final section of the review examined the role of communityinvolvement in bilingual/bicultural special education. He feelsthat the inherent separateness and fragmentation of the vision will createconflict rather than unity among school pupils as well as among society asa whole. the movie "Sarafina", the play"Zoot Suit" and so forth). Westby and Rouse also feel that second-language acquisition isfacilitated if family members are involved in helping students. Baecher, (eds.) Teaching the bilingual special education student. In other words, there aresimilarities between learning a first and second language and at least someof what students have learned about using their first language can transferover to their acquisition of the second language. Summary (p.68 -1- d1). Schools now offer history courses and curricula speciallydesigned to focus on the contributions made by minority people cultures tothe building of America; this as a reaction to concerns that standardhistory content devalues minority students' sense of self-esteem byoffering them no heros with which they can identify. However, today ESL instruction with not only abilingual but a bicultural focus is taught not only in urban schools butalso in rural schools. Many educators feel that specialeducation placement (especially in the area of learning disabilities)should show severe discrepancy between academic achievement indicators andability indicators. The former holds that because students cannot learn in a language which they do not understand, a home-school language switch will result in academic retardation. Suspancheck (1989) also discusses the importance of the generalclassroom environment. Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. The diagnostic phase, according to Ambert and Drew (1982) usesinterview, review of previous records, and formal testing procedures. Carrasquillo & R.E. For example, Glazer (1981) has pointed outthat all of these concerns, when they were originally conceived, werefocused on helping students to overcome academic deficits. Modern Language Journal, 62(4), 167-175.Banks, J.A. city council and school board minutes,church records, etc.) to learn about their community. & Santos de Barona, M. (199 ). (199 ). Non-verbal methods are said to include pictures,puzzles, audiovisual materials, and facial expression. (p.373) Regarding these arguments, the question that needs to be addressed iswhether they are supported by existing research in ESL special educationinstruction? For example, important cultural holidays and celebrations can becelebrated and discussed in class. Also, practicinglanguage in the context of real-life situations where students have honestdesires to express their feelings and opinions can be another means ofmotivating language learning. The second part of the review examined articles focusing on culture.Culture was defined and discussed in terms of the problems and difficultiesconfronting the bicultural student. The California State Department of Education (1984) also recommendsthat teachers create motivation situations for students. Thus, they organizeinstruction to accommodate this characteristic. Also, Krashen states that ESL teachers can teach students how to usethe English that they know as a basis for acquiring yet more English. (1988). The final point made in thesection was that while bilingual special education assessment has improvedover the years, more work must be done. As a response to this concern, many schools now use ability-groupedclasses, the use of culture free IQ tests to help students determine theircareer goals, and the use of different career ladders for students whoscore differently on standardized tests. Community Participation in Bilingual Special Education Bilingual/Bicultural special education, as practiced in the UnitedStates, does not assign a large role to the community in terms of bringingcommunity members into the classroom as part of the instruction process.Unfortunately, in far too many multicultural publications, the community isreferred to as a sort of reservoir of parents who teach their childrenprejudicial views and values which have to be countered by schoolauthorities. Ambert and Drew (1982) report that in the United States, communityinvolvement is often limited to bringing together the parents of bilingualspecial education children to assist in the writing and the approval ofchildren's IEP. For example, many senior citizens are lonely and isolated; often,they suffer from a debilitative sense of self-worth. If you are not a participant in the culture of power, being toldexplicitly the rules of the power culture makes it easier to acquire power. Similarly, Cummins (1984) has noted thathow students' communicate in their first language will often transfers overto their communication skills in the second language. Clinical principles for language intervention among nonstandard speakers of English. Such definitions can and dovary across schools and districts as well as across geographical locations. She notes: Children acquire their first language in natural settings where there is sufficient comprehensible input. (1984). For example, it may be determined that there arehealth risks, pathology, or illness in the home which present danger tostudents. Omark & J.G. Forexample, the interpretation of the results of students' language testing ismost precise when considered in the light of sensorial, neurological,cognitive, and emotional/psychological findings derived frommultidisciplinary team testing. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.U.S. Rosslyn, VA: National Clearinghouse for bilingual Education. Although a second language might be acquired best in a similar atmosphere, many culturally and linguistically different children learn their second language in a limited number of settings. In Proceedings of the information exchange co-sponsored by the National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education and the Georgetown University Bilingual Education Service Center. Lindale, TX: Hamilton Publications.Krashen, S.D. Further, they state thatbetter technologies (e.g. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.Westby, C.E. As languagecomprehension grows, these questions can become more complex. LA: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University.Linares, N. Summary The first section of the review examined pertinent publications onthe assessment of bilingual special education students. For example, teachers assigningNavajo students to reading groups will often select groups based on tribalclans. Boston: Little, Brown & Company.California State Department of Education (1984). In otherwords, teachers need to be aware of whether students have assimilated thedominant culture sufficiently so as to learn from regular or standardinstructional methods. Bilingual education and second language acquisition theory. Another way in which the community can play a role in bilingualspecial education has been addressed by Banks (1988). To this end, the report reviews six areas of pertinent researchrelated to the bilingual special education student: (1) assessment; (2)culture; (3) pedagogy; (4) language; (5) school changes reflective ofbicultural/bilingual special education; and (6) role of the community. These ways include field trips to ethnic events in the community, andbringing community members into the classrooms. There are currently two broad categories of assessment used forbilingual, special education students. On the other hand, because they are notcompatible with the culture of minority or bilingual students (andtherefore these students do not already know the material), the sameinstructional program operates to make minority students look like theyneed remedial work. Trips to these areas arealso said to be beneficial in terms of teaching bilingual special educationchildren the rich ethnic heritage of American society. Another area of improvement has been discussed by Barona and Santosde Barona (1987). By including seniorcitizens in school efforts to teach children the multi-ethnic andmulticultural nature of American society (as well as their place in thesociety) students can help to enrich the social lives of these older peopleand thereby to increase their sense of self-worth. Carrasquillo and R.E. 5. Krashen points out that too often error correctionfocuses on grammar and phonics but holds that this correction isunnecessary because if exposed to conversations with good language models,students will gradually acquire proper grammar and pronunciation. They are informed in overly simplistic language of the district's desire to "help the child," and have little choice but to accept the benevolence of the "experts."...As the process unfolds, frustration is felt by all parties because of the lack of a meaningful dialogue. (1985). However, Glazer points out that aftergraduation, these children will have to function in an English-speakingenvironment and they will not be fully prepared to do so. Also, since they do not know what the other studentsseem to know, such programs can debilitate minority or bilingual students'sense of self-worth. Issues of power are enacted in classrooms. Multi-ethnic education: Theory and practice. However, Bancroft (1978) notes that Europeans do have programs whichutilize community members by bringing together small groups of communitypeople who work with students in their second language learning. Also examined was whether children's parents should or should notattempt to speak English in their home. Bilingualism and special education: Program and pedagogical issues. Also, family members should ask students about thestory and discuss the events that occurred in the book. Tikunoff (eds.), Bilingual education for bilingual special education students: A guide for administrators. ReferencesAmbert, A. Ambert and Drew (1982) point out that specific assessment proceduresused in both phases of testing are multiple and complex. Another benefit of community involvement in bilingual/biculturalspecial education that is discussed by Banks (1988) is that communityinvolvement can be used to teach children about socio-political conditionsin the community. These changes reflect bilingual educators concerns that racism is themajor cause of most of the problems faced by bicultural/bilingual groups ofstudents. Cloud states that, at least at the identification stage, the twoassessment procedures are not really independent of one another. Culture in education and instruction of language learning-disabled students. However, once this phasehas been completed, language data need to be utilized in the design andimplementation of instructional efforts. He notes that manyareas of a city are ethnic areas that often celebrate ethnic-related eventswith community gatherings such as parades, bazaars, etc. Moreover, many schools will havebilingual special education teachers prepare booklets and pamphlets aboutsignificant cultural events, norms and values for distribution to allschool teachers. Bilingual students are not simply students who speak twolanguages; rather they are students who are being exposed to two cultures,one of which is associated with their home life, and the other of which isassociated with their school life. Best practices in the assessment of bilingual children. The need for parental involvement in the IEP process issuccinctly addressed by the authors: The IEP process all too often "happens" to limited English proficient parents. Head Start, and Follow Through. Usually, this testing is important ifthe family has expressed concern, if trauma is evident in family historyinformation, if the child has failed to show signs of adapting to a newculture, or if the child's behavior is extremely destructive. However, over the years, Glazer notes, that the focus has shifted tothe ideological and as a result, a good many programs designed to integrateethnicity/culture with course content and instruction have become verypolitical in approach. Banks (1988) also recommends that educators begin to view the peoplein the local community as knowledge sources for learning about culture. (4) One of the primary concerns of bilingual special educators andbilingual educators has been the fact that ethnic and linguistic minoritychildren often do poorly in school because instruction makes no provisionfor their native tongue. (6) Bilingual special educators have noted that frequently biologicaland physical handicaps (special needs) underlay students' academic failuresand that while education alone cannot eliminate the problem, it can besensitive to the special needs of these students, especially when they arein the regular classroom situation. Tikunoff (eds.), Bilingual education for bilingual special education students: A guide for administrators. It is only by knowing the complete repertoire ofmethods and materials that teachers can truly choose what is best for anindividual student. Formany children, lack of academic achievement is associated with poor healthmore than it is language or even physical handicaps; this because poorhealth can result in such consequences as inability to concentrate orretain information which, in turn, limit academic attainment. 3. In S.H. (1978). First, theassessment provides educators with a description of the child'sexperiential world both outside of and in school. Thus, their perceptionsbased on their experience can be taken into account in designing lessonplans and selecting instructional materials. & Rouse, G.R. Educators should communicate to students that their bilingualismis a special achievement which they must value and develop. He states thatcultural assessment serves three important functions. The California State Department of Education (1984) has alsoformulated a number of recommendations for taking students' first- andsecond-language proficiency into account in ESL learning. One of these issues is the pedagogical assumption thatacademic input should be simplified for these students. (1987). & Drew, N. (3) Bilingual special educators and bilingual educators in generalhave been concerned with cultural deprivation effects whereby minorityyouths are socialized within homes and communities that prevent them fromattaining cognitive skills and cultural characteristics needed for schooland later career success. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.Cloud, N. In addition, Taylor (1986) recommends that teachers take intoconsideration the fact that students have preferred learning styles. In O.L. According to the maximum exposure assumption the more exposure minority students receive to English in school, the more academic progress they will make. Questions can be asked and answered. Second, Cummins notes that data from bilingual programs in the UnitedStates shows that when early ESL instruction is primarily in the homelanguage, children do as well as students in English immersion programs, afact which indicates that first-language literacy skills can serve as abasis for English literacy acquisition. In A.L. However, Figueroa points out that a comprehensive assessment requiresmore than one home visit and more than one exploration of the student'sperception of the instructional program. However, Banks (1988) points out that the students canalso be of help to community members. (1989). Additionally, the selection of an instructional setting should consider the student's different cognitive/learning style as well as cross-culture communication skills. (1986). Proper identification will serve notonly as a foundation for effective service delivery but also for makingsure that educational services are indeed delivered to the population forwhich they are intended. Bilingual special education, the authorsstate, is a new and still evolving educational concern. It needs to be noted that not all educators agree with the changeswhich have been taking place in schools in response to bilingual/bilingualspecial education concerns. Thisphase of assessment is designed to collect the following information: (1) Language Proficiency Information - At this level of testing,language proficiency assessment is based on a school/district definition ofwhat constitutes limited language proficiency. in this vision remains the gathering place of nations, but the nation itself is a cumulative product of the distinctive streams that make it up, each maintaining language and culture. (2) Bilingual Special Education Teachers Organize Instruction UsingHome Culture's Rules of Discourse - When the school environmentaccommodates the rules of social interaction associated with the student'shome culture, it facilitates instruction. The need to identify themselves with peers in domains such as values, attitudes, clothing, and fear of being ridiculed, may lead to a state of conflict between the home and the society...Potential conflict between the norms operating at home and those at school may arise if the rules of discourse in each area are very different. Such skills not only facilitate students language learning; theyalso prepare and help them to achieve in academia in general. Theycan be given training in the IEP process so that they are familiar with itonce it begins. Banks recommendsthat students be taken to these gatherings on field trips. Bilingual/Bicultural Special Education (individuallydesigned special education programs which use the home language and cultureof students as instructional foundation) is designed to meet the needs ofthese students. Based on program evaluation findings, Cummins makes the followingrecommendations: 1. In L.M. (7) Another concern of bilingual special educators has been that therich and diverse cultures, values, languages, and behavioral styles ofminority cultures have not been viewed as valuable for the country, and asa result, the society as a whole is failing to preserve the multiculturalpluralism that is the United States. (p.119)Suspancheck feels that teachers need to realize that for some children, theonly setting in which the second language is ever heard is the classroom orschool setting. San Diego: College Hill Press.Suspancheck, P. For example, the competition that so often motivatesdominant culture students to maximum potential is offensive to many Indianchildren. Suchtesting allows for the determination of which instructional methods willwork best for students. 2. The fifth section of the review examined articles related to schoolchanges that reflect the concerns of bilingual special educators. (199 ). Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 373-385.Cummins, J. Interactive language teaching. Further, teachers need to knowthe cultural rules of social and communicative interaction and use these ininstruction. For example, in literacy instruction, Delpit noted that programs andmaterials often reinforce the pre-existing knowledge of dominant culturestudents giving them a feeling of confidence because they can raise theirhands and state what they know. The key question that can be asked regarding bilingual/biculturalassessment is whether current-day assessment methods are assisting tobetter identify and serve bilingual special education students? Anthropological considerations in the study of communication. Ways in which successful bilingualspecial education programs tailor instruction and curricula to accommodatecultural concerns were delineated. Hoover and Collier (1986) have noted that another way in whichculture can be taken into account in special education ESL classes isthrough curricular adaptation (adapting, modifying, or supplementing thecurriculum). the medical model, the student-centered model, and so forth). Assessment of student culture is also said to serve the function ofcontextualizing student scores and behavior indicators. It was noted that not all educators agree withthese changes and that some feel that in the shift from an academic to anideological and political focus, correcting academic problems has becomesecondary. In other words, itis often assumed that bilingual special education pupils learn best whenconceptual content and skills are reduced to their component parts.Cummins (1983) has noted that based on this assumption, arguments have beenmade for favoring certain ESL teaching techniques and methods over others. Taylor (1986), Linares (1983) and Saville-Troike (1983) echo thesentiments of Suspancheck. It was pointed outthat while there is not a good deal of literature on the role of thecommunity in facilitating bilingual special education students' ESLlearning, the literature that does exist indicates that there are severalways in which the community can be used as an educational resource. type of familyteaching, or mediation in the home, relationships of family members withthe larger society and so forth). ----------------------- 12 Pedagogy There are a number of pedagogical issues relevant to bilingualism andspecial education. Moreover, modeling effects tend to work best whenmodels are working with students on joint tasks which is what organizationssuch as scouts, youth groups and churches offer. Taylor (ed.), Nature of communication disorders in culturally and linguistically diverse populations. In this setting, community people can share their experiences and views with students, relate their oral traditions, answer questions, give new outlooks on society...(p.29 ) Commonly, the focus on the role of the community inbilingual/bicultural education is on how the community can help students intheir learning. In such cases, the school system and other pertinent authoritieswill take action to eliminate the danger to students. But the fear that the new responsiveness to ethnicity is undermining what has been on the whole a success will not go away. Specifically, the authors recommend that teachers encourage: (1)students to expand their range of appropriate responses; (2) peerinteractions and conversations in whole and small-group contexts; and (3)learning how to use language in specific situations. (1985). Educators should examine instruction for the extent to which it iscompatible with the way people acquire language skills. (Hoover & Collier, 1986, p.239) Figueroa (199 ) states that students' cultural needs should be partof psychoeducational assessment for all ESL instruction. (1983). Wong also suggeststhat teachers monitor students' progress in metacognitive skills by anongoing evaluation of relevant outcomes. Regardingculture and power, she reports the following truisms: 1. (2nd ed.) Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Barona, A. Baca & H.T. As a reaction to this concern, schools are nowoffering compensatory education experiences to these children at very earlyages, e.g. The Lozanov method and its American adaptations. School norms have been revised and teachers are routinelyprovided with inservice training aimed at freeing them of stereotypes. According to Rivers (1987), teachers can take students' languageproficiency levels into account through flexibility in second languageacquisition. In D.R. Special education for exceptional bilingual students: A handbook for educators. (9) To some extent, students must be taught the skills ofassimilation; this because they do live in a dominant culture.Bilingual/Bilingual Special Education teachers have therefore called forprograms that foster assimilation while preserving ethnic identity.Schools have responded to this concern with a number of education programsthat both preserve ethnic identity but facilitate assimilation. Another argument isagainst the instructional assumption that children need their primarylanguage in the home and English at school, stating that this method willretard children's language development in ESL classes; Cummins terms thisstrategy the "linguistic mismatch" technique. (1986). San Diego: College-Hill Press.Seymour, H.N. The silenced dialogue: Power and pedagogy in educating other people's children. Theidentification phase is characterized by these authors as involvingobservation and data collection in the following areas: (1) Student Variables - Generally, assessment of student variablesconsists of data collection on sensory functioning; it includes informationabout how a student receives, organizes and assimilates information thateducational authorities considered to be critical to learning. One argument favors what Cummins terms the "maximum exposure"instructional technique which is that limited English proficient studentsneed to be exposed to as much English as possible. The idea of correcting academic deficit, in otherwords, has taken a back seat to ideological and political concerns. (Ambert & Drew, 1982, p.8 ) Ambert and Drew report that often many of the barriers to meaningfuldialogue can be broken down by bringing parents of bilingual specialeducation students together in a group meeting at the local communitycenter. Severalchanges were delineated. First, it isnoted that when acquiring a second language, students will oftenincorporate the first language into the conversation. Cummins (1983) characterizesthese two instructional arguments as follows: Two opposing assumptions have dominated the policy debate about the effects of bilingual education: the linguistic mismatch and maximum exposure. Several forms of assessment and the many variables for whichinformation is collected were discussed. Erickson (eds.), The bilingual exceptional child. Second language learning in children: A proposed model. Further, hesuggests that teachers encourage comprehension through non-verbal as wellas verbal method. Figueroa does point out that there are family-culture situations thatmay require direct intervention and change once cultural evaluation orassessment is completed. It is recommended that evaluatorstake an ethnographic position in which, from a non-judgmental perspective,evaluators describe the internal dynamics of a family (e.g. (2nd ed.) Columbus, OH: Merrill.Bancroft, W.J. Schooling for language minority students: A theoretical framework. 4. Delpit states that the way in which power affects bilingual specialeducation instruction is that students (often members of a minorityculture) are confronted with schooling experiences and instruction thatdirectly reflect liberal, middle-class values and aspirations--aspirationsand values geared to protect and maintain the power of the dominantculture. The point was madethat without reliable and valid assessment, students will fail to beidentified and so not receive services related to their special needs. (Barona & Santos de Barona, 1987, p.183)The authors' words highlight the importance of correctly identifyingbilingual special education students. (2). In otherwords, are we doing a better job of assessment today than we were duringtwenty-five years ago? Assessment Barona and Santos de Barona (1987) have noted that: Over the years, disproportionate numbers of minority and low socioeconomic status groups have been found in special education classes, and there has been much debate concerning the ability of these groups of individuals...The phenomenon...is more understandable when viewed as a result of misdiagnosis and inappropriate procedures used in the assessment process. Itwas also noted that assessment serves the functions of not only identifyingstudents but designing individualized education programs for them. In A.L. Everyone will view himself as special and different, unable torelate to such a thing as a "call to Americans." As he puts it, The U.S. (2) General Health Evaluation - Typically, general health informationincludes the collection of data regarding possible prenatal/postnatalcomplications, childhood illnesses, trauma, and rate of growth data. San Diego: College-Hill Press.Rivers, W.M. Educators should not advise minority parents to switch to Englishin the home. University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee: Midwest National Origin Desegregation Assistance Center.Baca, L.M. He recommends that ESL teachersemphasize the learning of communication skills rather than merely learningvocabulary, grammar and so forth. For example, Krashen (1982) recommends thatteachers make sure that curricula and related materials are sufficientlycomprehensive given students' language deficits in both the first and thesecond language. Delpit recommends that instruction move away from decontextualizedsubskills and simplistic instruction for its minority culture students andinstead use their own cultural values as a foundation for teaching themboth the subject material and the rules of power in the dominant culture.To this end, Delpit states that teachers must either be members ofstudents' culture or else well-versed in the culture; in this way, the useof culture to teach the rules of another culture, and so provide childrenwith means of gaining power in the dominant culture, can be accomplished. In this regard, Rivers notes that teachers need to befamiliar with the many techniques and strategies that can be used to assistsecond language learning. In some cases, the authors report, content will be adapted tocontain the same material in both languages. Wong recommends several activities for metacognitive instruction.These consist of teachers helping the student to: (1) determine what thelearning task is; (2) reflect on what he knows or needs to know about thetask; and (3) devise a plan for dealing with the task. (4) Sociocultural Background Information - Assessment in this areaincludes information about the child's ethnic background, the child's levelof acculturation to the mainstream culture, the degree to which the childmaintains traditional cultural values, and the socioeconomic status andcomposition of the child's family. Specifically, he states that bilingual special educationteachers mediate ESL instruction by making use of their understanding ofthe student's home culture.Instructional mediation using student culture is said to occur in threeways: (1) Bilingual Special Education Teachers Respond to and Use CulturalReferents - The use of cultural referents can be both verbal andnonverbal. Thesestyles need to be identified in students. In other words, the act of communicating isinstructional and can serve instructional purposes. As more research is conducted in the area, the authors believe thatassessment procedures will improve, especially in the direction ofreflecting students' language and culture needs. ESLclasses are especially designed to attain this two-fold goal. Further, there are ethnic schools that focus on the maintenance ofethnic cultures and traditions. Another recommendation for accommodating students' language levelthat is discussed by Krashen (1982) is the minimization or avoidance oferror correction. Classroom management through curricular adaptations: Educating minority handicapped students. Schools now have special ethnic students units and classes whichfocus on foods, holidays, and ethnic heroes; this as a reaction to theconcern that curriculum contain courses and programs offering studentsethnic content. Also, in ESL classes for Chinese students, teachers know that homeculture dictates that students finish tasks and await new instructionsrather than proceeding automatically to other work. Those with the power are frequently least aware of its existencewhile those without the power are often most aware of its existence. Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University.Carrasquillo, A.L. Hestates that: Teachers should invite local residents of various ethnic backgrounds to the classroom. Bureau of the Census, 1984) reports that 79million school-age children are non-native English speakers; of these, 12percent or approximately 948, children are also believed to have specialeducation needs. bilingual special education: The important connection. For example, many families attempt to help theirchildren learn English by forcing themselves to speak only English at home;however, research has shown that learning is maximal when family membersspeak their primary language at home and let the school instruct inEnglish. Wong (1982) has pointed out that teachers serve the language needs ofbilingual special education students best when they teach them thinking orlearning skills ("learning how to learn"); he calls these "metacognitive"skills. The third section of the review examined pedagogical concerns.Several issues were raised. (1986). Sentences should be kept short and teachersshould speak slowly. Cummins states that two types of research suggest thatmaximum exposure and linguistic mismatch assumptions are not supported.First, Canadian French Immersion programs have found that immersionstudents tend to lag behind their monolingual peers in English languagearts; however, they have not only closed the gap by the fifth and sixthgrade but in many cases have surpassed their monolingual counterparts.These data, Cummins states, shows that students perform well under home-school language switch conditions. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

Many of our Papers can be Downloaded From This Site!

PLEASE READ THIS, IT IS IMPORTANT!

Office hours are Monday through Friday, from 9 am to 5 pm (PST). You may place orders for custom research over the phone during office hours. E-mail requests can be made to our graduate and undergraduate department any time, and will be reviewed during office hours. You may also contact customer service any time through e-mail, and we will review your message during business hours. A great many papers can be downloaded right from this site, but not all of them. If you would like to know if a particular paper is downloadable, just look in the description for: "Available for Internet Download: Y" or "Available for Internet Download: N" If you wish to purchase a paper which is NOT available for immediate download, you will need to make other shipping arrangements. Also, please be aware that these orders are processed Monday through Friday from 9 am to 5 pm (PST). If you place your order after 4:45pm on Friday, it will not be processed until the following Monday morning. We charge $8 per page for all of our pre-written reports, plus shipping (and tax for California residents). However, the highest cost of any ONE report is $136, or 17 pages. Please, take a moment. Make sure you have chosen the report you want or need BEFORE you complete your order. If you are not sure, allow us to help you. We do not offer refunds or exchanges, so it is important for you to let us answer your questions during office hours. Reports which are e-mailed or downloaded are in Microsoft Word format. We are making more reports available for e-mail delivery faster than we can update our listings. Please call to check on the status of particular reports. There are many other shipping options which are listed on the Checkout page.