COMPUTERS IN SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY.   Term Paper ID:18852 Click to get this paper

Essay Subject: Benefits & problems. Testing, reporting, tracking progress, interactive systems, student anxiety, outlook.... More...

10 Pages / 2250 Words 11 sources, 32 Citations, APA Format $40.00 Return to List of Papers

Paper Abstract: Benefits & problems. Testing, reporting, tracking progress, interactive systems, student anxiety, outlook. Paper Introduction: Computers and the School Psychologist School psychologists primarily use computers to assist in the daily tasks required in the course of their professional duties in the public schools. This paper focuses on the use of the microcomputer with students for the purposes of test administration, scoring and analysis; other uses of the computer by psychologists; ethical concerns, standards in practice; advantages and disadvantages of computer use in psychology; and trends for the future. By far, the most widespread use of the computer in school psychology is in testing. Testing, in this sense, is distinguished from assessment. Testing, also called psychometrics, gained wide acceptance early in this century (Tallent, 1987, p. 97). This great tradition in the field of Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Severely physically disabled children may communicate withadapted computer with the blink of an eye (Thomas & Grimes, 1985, p. 455-458). SchoolPsychology in Illinois, 5, 9. Various editing and word processingcapabilities make it easier to write, add, delete or modify the text ofpsychological reports without having to retype the entire report. Literature shows that the computer as it now exists is not a thinkingmachine. Sometests use conditional logic, which varies the type of items based onprevious responses of the client. The psychologist's task is to reflect. 359). Legal challenges to testresults will most likely name both the test developer and the test user asdefendants. Computers are consistent. Leadership and technology:Indispensable partners for rural school excellence. Olcott, D.J., Jr. Tallent views psychological assessment as aconceptual activity that cannot be assigned to a machine (1987, pp. Heemphasizes that testing programs are actuarial systems. Such testscores are not meant to replace the logic, thinking, and problem-solvingjudgment of the psychologist. 96). The caution here is that tests beused as a tool, not a substitute for the psychologists' knowledge,thinking, and judgment. Their background research showed that alarge percentage of a psychologist's time is devoted to administration andinterpretation of psychoeducational instruments, such as the WISC.Computers now have the capability of giving, scoring, and interpreting thistest, as well as others. Sophisticated varieties of response modes include spatial,sequential, auditory, or verbal orientation, so that with careful choice ofprograms, a broad range of special needs can be met. The school psychologist may make use of a wide range of other uses ofthe computer--psychological reporting, data management, instruction andgames, and innovative intervention. Behavior Research Methods & Instrumentation,14(2), 198-2 2. Journal of PersonalityAssessment, 51(1), 95-1 8. 97). Altemose and Williamson also discuss the specifics of how computerscan save psychologists' time. This great tradition in the field ofpsychology relies on the use of standardized instruments to gain knowledgeabout individual personalities. In cases of consultation the psychologistmay quickly send reports by modem. 6). Savingthe report on a disc makes it possible to recall the document later.Reports can be created from routinely used blocks of text. Data such as the status ofchildren on behavior modification programs or those needing re-evaluationat various intervals are readily available. (1987). Studies show that clients like computer testing and will often answerquestions more frankly to a keyboard and screen than to a psychologist.Computers are now inexpensive. There are other criticisms. Computers in psychology: A survey ofinstructional applications. 46). The computer can generatespreadsheets for budget projections or compute other numerical functions.Psychologists may use computerized career guidance programs for secondarystudents and share information with other psychologists via computernetworks. 45). On the positive side, computers have infinitepatience. 4849). Testing, in this sense, is distinguished from assessment.Testing, also called psychometrics, gained wide acceptance early in thiscentury (Tallent, 1987, p. Challenge of computers inpsychological assessment. Skinner, H.A., & Pakula, A. For instance, a measurement of hesitation and the forcewith which a key is struck can be accomplished rather unobtrusively. 3 1-3 2).Newsletters are available to assist the busy school psychologist in keepingup with what is available--"Solutions" from Sunburst Communications and the"Computer and Technological Applications in School Psychology Newsletter"from National Association of School Psychologists (Stephens, 1987-89, pp 5,9). Psych-Systems offers interpretive systemswhich provide immediate scoring and interpretation at the school. Computerized psychologicaltesting: Overview and critique. Thedangers of relying solely on raw data lie in the realm of creating amystique about the machine and its power, making its results special andunique. 6). Various fill-in-the-blank forms save time and render raw data reports. 3 1-3 3. It operates in a serial fashion and isunable to make intelligent judgments about complex clinical situations.Other researchers found widespread concern that psychologists wouldeventually be replaced by computers. NormanTallent, in part, refutes the earlier criticisms of Matarazzo, saying thatthey were too broad and out of date. Castellan, N.J., Jr. School Psychology inIllinois, 6. On the computer interface. As stated by AlbertHubbard, "One machine can do the work of fifty ordinary men. In a game of chess, a computer cannot defeat a mediocre player,let alone a chess master. 457). Thomas, A., & Grimes, J. MAC provides an analysis of information based on the WechslerIntelligence Scale for Children--Revised (WISC-R), the Wide RangeAchievement Test, and the Vineland. Various psychologists have moved beyond this early basic useto sophisticated instructional systems (Butler & Kring, 1984; Castellan,1982). By far, the most widespread use of the computer in school psychologyis in testing. Interventions are indicated by crisis or criticalevent in the life of the student that taxes the coping capability to thepoint of psychological disequilibrium (Thomas & Grimes, 1985, p. Customizedcommands, such as a code for the child's first name, save keyboarding time. There are concerns about an appropriate fee schedule for computertesting. 44-45).Computer reports look impressive. References Altemose, J.R., & Williamson, K.B. They have the advantage of not having"hangovers, family arguments before coming to work or lapses of memory"(Burke & Normand, 1987, p. Andevaluation and judgment must be constant. This paper focuses on the use of the microcomputer with studentsfor the purposes of test administration, scoring and analysis; other usesof the computer by psychologists; ethical concerns, standards in practice;advantages and disadvantages of computer use in psychology; and trends forthe future. Tallent cautions the psychologist to remember that a primary task ofthe psychologist is to make selections from a variety of information anddecide what is to be communicated to and about the client. Behavior Research Methods,Instruments, & Computers, 16(2), 18 -182. Commercially prepared starter text files are available for phrases andtopics frequently used. Hofer and Bersoff wrote a lengthy discussion ofissues relevant to the administration and interpretation of tests,including a thorough set of proposed standards, which range from theconditions of the testing room to serious and continuous quality control(1984, pp. (1986). Psychologists need not fear fortheir job security in the wake of computer innovation. 98-99). Professional Psychology Research andPractice, 18(1), 42-51. Standards for theadministration and interpretation of computerized psychological testing.(Available from Donald Bersoff, 12 Seventeenth Street NW, Suite 4 ,Washington, DC 2 36). The psychologist adds the dimensions of frame of reference and reason tothe raw data in order to create a helpful psychological report. School Psychology Review, 13(4), 455-46 . People tend to accept as fact what maybe simply a statistical tendency. Thecomputer can use multiple sets of norms and produce results based onmultivariant analysis far beyond anything humanly possible by an individualpsychologist. 199). Concerns includecultural bias in programming and fair accommodations for persons who have apoor reading level or who are experiencing depression. There are questions about who uses reports and the circumstancesof their use. 1 6). The future of computer use in school psychology is promising.Computers have already proven themselves as efficient, accurate time-saversin the area of psychological testing. Rural students nolonger need be outside the mainstream of education. They repeat needed tasks over and over again to accommodate eventhe slowest children. Class demonstrations,electronic chalkboard, and individualized student projects make further useof computers for instruction. All have been normed using datacollected through the user network, and several were developed specificallyfor the computer (Brown, 1984, p. Computers are used for running experiments and for learning in theareas of sensation/perception and memory/cognition. 456). (1982). This can be dangerous as the role of the test giver becomes remoteand impersonal. Tailored or adaptive testing,in which the computer automatically adjusts the test difficulty to thelevel of the student, greatly reduces client testing time, fatigue andboredom. Best practices in schoolpsychology. Computers and the School Psychologist School psychologists primarily use computers to assist in the dailytasks required in the course of their professional duties in the publicschools. Computers accurately convert raw scores into scaled scores, as wellas giving a profile of strengths and weaknesses. Tallent, N. Psychologists' attitudes toward computer use range from"technophobia" to "technophilia" (Tallent, 1987, p. Brown mentions the needfor confidentiality--proper secured storage of personal information ondiscs (1984, p. (1984). A fundamental issue is that testing relies on quantificationand physicalistic principles, which do violence to the many facets of humanpersonality (Tallent, 1987, pp. Butler and Kring enumerate severalpositive reasons for computer instruction: (1) individualized learningpace, (2) efficiency, (3) greater student interest, (4) immediate feedback,and (5) less instructor time (1984, p. Present law is vague on copyright protection (Skinner & Pakula,1986, p. Hofer, P.J., & Bersoff, D.N. . (1984). Professional Psychology: Research and Practice,17(1), 44-5 . Therapeutic interventions are possible with videotape-computerinteractive systems. In addition to writing psychological reports, the psychologist maytrack student progress on the computer. Satellite programming,interactive video, videodiscs, fiber optics, and interactiveteleconferencing have transformed rural education. Testing and assessment are differentprocesses. In the 194 s, measurement from tests cameto be viewed as only one aspect of evaluation, part of a broader processcalled psychological assessment. (1981). Lost are the interactive features of traditional therapy(alliance, transference, and countertransference) (p. Possible topics for starter paragraphs couldinclude identifying information, referral concerns, background information,achievement or educational recommendations (Thomas, 1985, pp. Treatment canquickly proceed, based on the computer-assisted results. The program produces codes which canbe used to make diagnoses of mental retardation, academic under- and/orover-achievement, social maladjustment, over-compensation, learningdisabilities, and perceptual motor-communication disorder. Further constraints on widespread acceptance ofcomputer usage include lack of training, lack of time, lack of equipment,and lack of technical support (Castellan, 1982, p. Tallentquotes Rodgers as saying that computerized interpretations are "basicallydangerous except in the hands of a person who is sufficiently expert . .that he probably will not use the computer printout" (p. The question of who is responsible for ethics, standards, validity,reliability of instruments, and their use needs to be resolved. In the field of medicine, as anexample, diagnostic radiology has been using computed tomographic scans fora number of years, but the computers have virtually no impact on thediagnoses and choices of therapy (Skinner & Pakula, 1986, pp. Technology becomes a"collaborative partner" with the instructor (Olcott, 1988, p. They areprobabilities and have nothing to do with the individual taking the test.Yet far-reaching life decisions are made on this basis (1987, p. 47). The central controversy in the area of the use of computers in psychologyis the fact that these two processes are often confused and that test dataare inappropriately substituted for a psychological evaluation. 3 5).The computer provides immediate feedback to the student being tutored, theclient being tested, and the psychologist running the test. (1987). He recognizes a problem andthinks and acts in a way toward resolving it. Skinner and Pakula go on to say thatmany testing systems have not been rigorously validated (1986, pp. 3 4). They yield different products and require different approaches. One study showed that a computerized Slosson wassuperior to the conventional human-administered test in its ability topredict college grade point average (1981, p. (1988, October). Some clients who are not familiar with computers, particularly olderpeople, exhibit anxiety about using computers. 48). Stephens, E. 3 -34). These foregoing myriad uses of the computer are not withoutcontroversy and strong opinions, positive and negative, in the professionof school psychology. Administrative reports can begenerated by information already in.the computer and sorted according tohandicapping condition, by school, by age, by sex, by teacher, or bypsychologist (Thomas & Grimes, 1985, p. (Eds.). Thecurrent Psych-Systems software includes 18 tests commonly used inpsychological evaluation of children. What then is tobe done with a 5 page document generated by a computer that represents amass of unfocused, confusing, misleading, contradictory information? There are interactive interview programsfor intake of children and parents (Thomas & Grimes, 1985, pp. Computers generateprobabilities, not facts. Several researchers call for stringent ethics and standards in thearea of school psychologists' use of computers. Burke, M.J., & Normand, J. Lab-II, an entirely self-containedsystem, allows the user to administer, score, and interpret the MMPI, avocational interest inventory, IQ tests, measures of arithmetic and memoryability, and a depression scale (Altemose & Williamson, 1981, p. Brown, D.T. (1984).Automated assessment systems in school and clinical psychology: Presentstatus and future directions. The Strong CampbellInterest Inventory has demonstrated this capability for years. 181). 4 1). The tests are standardized and do not tieup excessive amounts of professional time (Brown, 1984, pp. Matarazzo in several articles in theearly 198 s viewed with alarm the vast over-use of computerized testing.Tallent cites impressive evidence that annually more than 3 , computerized test interpretations are processed annually by various scoringservices (1987, p. Computers can read a book to a blind child.Computers have been adapted that allow a mute child to communicate with alanguage board. In some cases, the computer will accept a free response. 1 1).Test printouts must be integrated with other sources, such as observationand history, for a pertinent evaluation of a particular client. For use in the area of school psychology a program has been developedcalled Multidimensional Actuarial Classification (MAC), which aids in thediagnosis and classification of child psychopathology (Brown, 1984, p.456). Newprograms need to be created to keep up with psychologists' needs. 357). However, this ancillary information must be viewed with caution.As one reviewer said, the "computer won't tell you whether the latency wasdue to the client pausing to sneeze, falling off the chair, or seeingvisions of Christ on the terminal!" (Skinner & Pakula, 1986, p. Currently, computerized reports are admissible as courtevidence. A major challenge is the extent towhich rapid computation can be expanded to inroads of clinical judgment.Meeting these challenges will take time. Clinical judgment vs.the computer: Can the school psychologist be replaced by a machine?Psychology in the Schools, 18, 356-363. Thisinformation may, in extreme cases, indicate a pattern that certainresponses were not valid or had unusual emotional significance for thesubject. However, this anxiety isshort-lived for most subjects if they are allowed to practice before theactual test (Burke & Normand, 1987, p. 97-98). American Guidance Service publishes a WISC-R interpretation system,and, in addition, computer scoring companies are available by mail (ADEPTand National Computer System), which score and interpret WISC-R, the MMPI,Rorschach tests, and others. Most people associated with schools are familiar with opticalscanners, the light-sensing devices that score exams marked with carbonpencil marks. The computer can measure certain delicate response patterns duringtesting sessions. Tallent's strong statements in no way diminishthe value of computers as psychometric machines. (1985). Butler, D.L., & Kring, A.M. 1 2). Their vast capacity fordata storage and processing is unquestioned. Survey on present and potentialinstructional use of computers in psychology. Skinner and Pakula emphasize that thecomputer is a linear instrument. 1 ). Computerized testing raises legal issues. The point is that their useis limited to generating raw data. Most of these instruments use a format of true/false or multiplechoice. (1987-1989). Computer-generated psychological reports: Alook at the modern psychometric machine. Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.----------------------- 13 No machinecan do the work of one extraordinary man" (Olcott, 1988, p. Thechild may observe his behavior among others in the classroom and make newchoices by computer, followed up by in-depth interview with thepsychologist. If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

Many of our Papers can be Downloaded From This Site!

PLEASE READ THIS, IT IS IMPORTANT!

Office hours are Monday through Friday, from 9 am to 5 pm (PST). You may place orders for custom research over the phone during office hours. E-mail requests can be made to our graduate and undergraduate department any time, and will be reviewed during office hours. You may also contact customer service any time through e-mail, and we will review your message during business hours. A great many papers can be downloaded right from this site, but not all of them. If you would like to know if a particular paper is downloadable, just look in the description for: "Available for Internet Download: Y" or "Available for Internet Download: N" If you wish to purchase a paper which is NOT available for immediate download, you will need to make other shipping arrangements. Also, please be aware that these orders are processed Monday through Friday from 9 am to 5 pm (PST). If you place your order after 4:45pm on Friday, it will not be processed until the following Monday morning. We charge $8 per page for all of our pre-written reports, plus shipping (and tax for California residents). However, the highest cost of any ONE report is $136, or 17 pages. Please, take a moment. Make sure you have chosen the report you want or need BEFORE you complete your order. If you are not sure, allow us to help you. We do not offer refunds or exchanges, so it is important for you to let us answer your questions during office hours. Reports which are e-mailed or downloaded are in Microsoft Word format. We are making more reports available for e-mail delivery faster than we can update our listings. Please call to check on the status of particular reports. There are many other shipping options which are listed on the Checkout page.