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Paper Abstract: Sources, types, effects, methods of control, regulation. Paper Introduction: The purpose of this paper is to discuss the sources of air pollution, the types of pollution in our atmosphere, the effects of this pollution on humans, animals and vegetation, the methods of controlling pollution tried thus far, and regulation enacted to control the pollution that plagues many of our major cities and rural areas. The major source of air pollution in the United States is the automobile. Gasoline vapors account for much of the poison spewed into the air. Included in this category are many thousands of businesses serving the automotive industry, from gas stations to car-repair shops. Despite the enactment of many laws governing auto emissions, cars are the number of polluters, providing about 55 percent of the smog. Much of the other 45 percent of pollution comes from oil refineries and power utilities. Chemical company plant Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. During lengthy heatwaves, in which smog is present, about the only healthy activity availableis walking to and from one's car. BIBLIOGRAPHY Begley, S. The government'sphasing lead out of gasoline has reduced lead levels by 9 percent. This had caused particulate emissions to exceed standards in one caseby 9 percent, the AQMD claimed. Ten million asthma victims find that polluted air can bringon painful, sometimes life-threatening attacks. Given that there is no clear relationship between increased costs anddecreased social costs, and that there are additional social costsassociated with such factors as bureaucratic inter-ference, however, thereis considerable uncertainty that the most efficient solution to airpollution has emerged. EnvironmentalProtection Agency to establish national air quality standards to protecthealth and welfare, national standards for new facilities and standards forfacilities emitting hazardous substances. The efforts atcity and state levels were revitalized in the 194 's and 195 's. U.S. The acidrain falls anywhere from a few hundred to a few thousand miles away fromthe source, depending on the strength of the prevailing winds. An estimated 13 million pounds of excesspollutants were released, the district claimed. Control costs associated with the technologies developed for the cleanair program in the decade of the 198 's were estimated to average about $3 billion annually in constant '83 dollars. The city required steel mills, power plants, and chemicalfactories to spend millions for controls. New studies suggest that evenlegal levels of ozone damage human beings. Evenbenzylethylene, used by dry cleaners, is harmful to much of the population(Cowley, 1988, p 48-49). (1987). The clearesteffects of acid rainfall observed to date have been on lake fisheries. "Smog-Ozone Policy Shift," (1987,April). 47). As of 1988, the ten dirtiest cities in the U.S.were Los Angeles, California; Bakersfield, California; Fresno, California;Houston, Texas; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Atlanta, Georgia; San Diego,California; Visalia, California; Sacramento, California; Stockton,California; New York, New York; and Dallas-Fort Worth, Texas ("The DirtyDozen," 1988, 1 -11). Particulates, from a legionof combustion and industrial sources, have decreased. Gasoline vapors account for much of the poison spewed into theair. Despite theenactment of many laws governing auto emissions, cars are the number ofpolluters, providing about 55 percent of the smog. Concernabout air pollution in the U.S is at least a century old. Since acid rain has been the most discussed geo-politically, it is best to start with that. Theindex ranges from a low of " " to a high of "5 ." When air quality is moderate or worse, outdoor activity can triggertightness in the chest, wheezing, burning eyes and an irritated nose andthroat--even if one is in good health. Wires had broken, plates warped, the parts removed butnot replaced as Mobil went on with business as usual. In addition to the above, there are a variety of chemical pollutantswhose effects upon humans are known to be harmful. TheMobil Corporation's "cat-cracker"--an electrostatic precipitator thatcharges microscopic particles and magnetically collects them on metalplates--was broken. These twogaseous compounds react in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acidwhich in turn fallout of the sky in the form of rain and snow. In an additional1 percent of the population of the U.S., years of exposure topolluted air can eventually trigger asthma and other respiratoryproblems. "The Dirty Dozen," (1988, May). E. Estimated excess human health costs alone wouldbe at least $4 billion annually. Pesticides sprayed into the air by farm growers and other toxicchemicals used in the manufacturing sector are also a large part of theproblem. It com-bines levels of 5different pollutants detected at more than 4,5 monitoring stationsnationwide scattered around 36 urban areas. In Los Angeles alone it has been estimated that in addition toautomobiles, more than 6 , stationary emission points contribute to theproblem. When air pollution reaches the unhealthful stage, schoolplaygrounds should shut down, outdoor sports events should be postponed andadults should skip their jogging pattern. By law theseprimary standards must have an adequate margin of safety to fully protectthe public health. Detroit: Gale Research Co. When the reading reaches"unhealthful" or higher, anyone with a heart or respiratory ailment shouldavoid physical exertion outdoors ("Staving Off Dirty Air," 1988). "A Long Summer of Smog," Newsweek,29, 46-48. The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 incorporated a require-ment forpreventing the significant deterioration of air quality in areas where airalready is cleaner than required by the national air quality standards, setnew deadlines were set for achieving them in areas that do not meet thestandards, and required the review of those existing standards by the EPA. It was theintention of Congress to have the EPA establish stringent standards andenforce a definite timetable against tough economic and social sanctionsfor failure and that this program would finally unleash Americantechnological ingenuity to try to solve long-standing air quality problems. The acidification of precipitation (rain) in the atmosphere is theresult of emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. The WeatherAlmanac. The first major attack on air pollution was mounted by thecities in the Progressive Era before World War I. New York: Harper & Row. Emissions of sulfur dioxide, mostly from coal andoil burning power plans, are down 37 percent. For millions ofAmericans, there is not magic pill to make one immune to airpollution. Another problem of control of pollution is money, as the followingexample attests. Particulate emissions are still a major pollution problem, despite thedecline in production of these particles due to reductions in industrialemissions. This poisonous gas damages cells in the lungs' airwaysmaking the passages inflamed and swollen. Cowley, G. Acid rain appears to be the cause of theextinction of the fish. Construction workers, farm workers,police officers and millions of other Americans who earn their livingworking outdoors have nothing to say about this, naturally. Within the last 2 years salmon disappeared frommany Norwegian rivers, and trout soon followed measurements taken in suchrivers almost always shows a decline in pH, usually attributable to acidrain. Despite the regulation of businesses and automobiles creating airpollution in the U.S, there is an abundance of toxic chemicals floatingover the United States. News & WorldReports, 28, 1 7. Secondarily, air quality should protect public welfareagainst losses to property, other living things and aesthetics. If a person jogs, plays tennis or works-out in some other way,exer-cising in polluted air will make it harder, at least temporarily, tobreathe. "Ozone Breakaway," Newsweek, 29,48-49. The effects of air pollution on the environment at large and on humanbeings, is enormous. 46-48). One estimate states that 5 billionpounds of unseen synthetic pollutants are sprayed into the air of theUnited States each year (Begley, 1988, p. Steel once got a bill for $75 , . For most Americans, on smoggy days they should remainindoors, preferably in an air-conditioned environ-ment. The clean air program was established, and reaffirmed in 1977, withoutregard for technological feasibility or economic costs. Much of the other 45percent of pollution comes from oil refineries and power utilities.Chemical company plants are responsible for a great many poisonouschemicals entering the atmosphere, as are high-technology plants, such asthose located in California's Silicon Valley. In fact, there are somany businesses, industries and consumer products involved in creating airpollution that eliminating them, or even policing them, have become next toimpossible. Environmental lobbyists may be the choice of "last resort."Environmental lobbyists are using the smog of two seasons ago to argue thata reauthorization of the Clean Air Act, which technically expired in 1981,should mandate tougher restrictions on toxic chemicals and sulfur dioxide. Mobil had outmaneuvered the agency and won most of theimportant court battles. A. The primary concernwas the attainment of air quality for various pollutants in all parts ofthe nation better than that which would produce adverse health effects inthe most sensitive segments of the population as a whole. Beginning in the 196 's, the city of Pittsburgh switchedfrom coal to oil on industrial boilers, and from oil to gas for homeheating. The Toxic Cloud. was started long ago. Brown, M. Asurvey of over 1,5 lakes in southwestern Norway, which has acid rainfallproblems similar to those of southern Sweden, showed that over 7 percentof the lakes with a pH below 4.3 contained no fish whatsoever. Regulation of air pollution in the U.S. Furthermore, hard times in thesteel industry helped cut offenses, but the stiff fines cut offenses aswell. Similareffects have been found in lakes in the Adirondack Mountains of New Yorkand in some areas of Canada. Taking awalk, mowing the lawn, raking leaves or barbecuing a steak can beunhealthful. Significantly higher costs are associatedwith damage to property and other living things, and intangibles such asloss of aesthetic value or the increase of suffering, anxiety or grief. cities unable to achieve federal clean-airstandards, the culprit is often the air. News & World Report, 16,1 -11. This is in addition to the eight million automobiles and truck inLos Angeles basin (Brown, 1987). The major source of air pollution in the United States is theautomobile. In one experiment for the EPA,healthy men exercised six and a half hours on a stationary bicycle ortreadmill for 5 minutes at a stretch, breathing 12 ppb (parts perbillion) ozone. These include benzene,toluene, acetaldehyde, xylene and ethylene dibromide, to name a few. Sulfur dioxide levels in theatmosphere result primarily from stationary source combustion of coal andoil, as well as from nonferrous metal smelting operations. Tough policies and lots of money, however, can sometimes turn thepollution tide. The pioneer activities before WorldWar II scored a few modest victories and can be credited with keeping manylocally bad situations from growing worse. The problem seems to have begun with the Industrial Revolutionand has been with us ever since that time. Coke oven pollutants are also aproblem to humans and can cause disease and/or death. (1987). The problem with these particles is not so muchtheir magnitude as the fact that they can be inhaled by human beings andanimals. U.S. The Southern California Air Quality Management ControlDistrict tried to discipline a refinery belonging to the Mobil OilCorporation, which has a plant in Torrance, just south of Los Angeles. (Eds.). (1988, August). The best one can do is to keep track of the airquality each day and adjust the outdoor activities accordingly. However, in this industrialage, even small businesses such as bakeries and dry cleaners contribute tothe problem, as well as individuals using paint, ink and dye products. 244).The Clean Air Act Amendments of 197 required the U.S. Un-fortunately,Congress has backed down whenever cities like Pittsburgh complain that suchfines will cripple their economies. They were fined $l , for a first offense, and $2,5 a dayhereafter. Ruffner, J. Similar occurrences have been observed in Sweden and Canada. With regard to smog levels in America's major cities, the effects areobvious and predictable. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the sources of air pollution,the types of pollution in our atmosphere, the effects of this pollution onhumans, animals and vegetation, the methods of controlling pollution triedthus far, and regulation enacted to control the pollution that plagues manyof our major cities and rural areas. "Staving Off Dirty Air," (1987, September). Inspite of all this, 75 million urbanites live where ozone regularly exceedsfederal limits, and 41.4 million people live where carbon monoxide is toohigh. Comprehensivecontrol began less than 2 years ago. The pollutants are carbonmonoxide, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and dust particles. Science News, 18,244. The methods of controlling air pollution have not worked, in the main.Many air pollutants have been slashed dramatically, since passage of theClean Air Act of 197 . However, the Mobil Corporation countered that the District's resultswere too high and that the particles were non-toxic, non carcinogenic, andnon-harmful. The early post-war efforts,helped greatly by the displacement of coal and natural gas in smallfurnaces and boilers showed that real, if limited, improvement was possiblewhere local laws were enforced vigorously. The Air Quality Act of 1967 provided for establishing air qualitycontrol regions with standards of air quality based onfederally established criteria ("Smog-Ozone Policy Shift," 1987, p. They were described by theofficials as containing lead, nickel, silica, aluminum and chromium. After several sessions, their lung function had declined 12percent and it hurt to breathe deeply (Begley, p. (1988, August). But wearingfiber masks helps. Included in this category are many thousands of businesses serving theautomotive industry, from gas stations to car-repair shops. H. Un-fortunately, this conditioncan happen up to 1 times a year in major cities, such as Los Angeles,Houston, Milwaukee, St Louis, and Washington, D.C. An especially large part of the pollutiondilemma is the business of wood products, such as lumber yards,paper mills and the like. Some of the problems of these particulate emissions are mainlydue to fugitive dust emissions from industrial sources, such as mineralprocessing plants, as well as from non-industrial sources, such as roadwayand agri-cultural dust. There are many different types of pollutants invading the atmosphere.The most deadly is carbon monoxide, emitted mainly from automobiles.Another deadly pollutant is ozone, caused by volatile organic compoundsemissions from both stationary (business) and mobile (automotive) sources.Nitrogen dioxide is emitted by two main sources: transportation vehiclesand stationary fossil fuel combustors, such as those found in utilitycompany power plants and oil refineries. Ozone pollution exacerbates breathing problems forthe nation's 1 million asthmatics and it harms healthy respiratorysystems, as well. & Bair F. They fended off an attempt by AQMD to fine thecompany $35 , --$1, a day for each day the district claimed there wasa violation. U.S. With 73 U.S. These control costs were neededto be set against social costs of far greater proportion than would beborne without the program. The localair-quality index is useful for this purpose. Even if a person is healthy, dirty air can cause anassortment of health problems often blamed on other causes, such as stressand allergies. Lead gasoline additives, nonferrous smelting plants and batteryplants are the primary contributors to atmospheric leadpollutants. Transportation sources alone contribute 8 percentof annual lead emissions. The 197 Act also required statesto develop implemen-tation plans to bring their air quality to the levelsset by national standards, and it required stringent national emissionstandards for new automobiles. Arsenic, radionuclides, cadmium and polycyclic organic matter areother chemicals which enter the atmosphere on a regular basis and can causeharm to human beings (Ruffner, 1987). If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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