DARWINISM: NEW WORLD VIEW.   Term Paper ID:12907 Click to get this paper

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Paper Abstract: Evolution as element of changing 19th Cent. ideas on science, philosophy, religion. Paper Introduction: The Darwinian revolution, encompassing the first six decades of the 19th Century, constitutes one of the most significant turning points in natural science. Moreover, as Rous points out, the evolutionary point of view moved rapidly from the status of an almost heretical viewpoint to a theory with wide intellectual and popular acceptance (Rous xii). This rapid acceptance occurred not only because of scientific validity, but also because the basic ideas meshed with other intellectual developments of that era (Rous xiii). The thesis of this paper is that the Darwinian revolution can be seen as part of a new world view, encompassing religion and philosophy as well as science. For example, Rous notes that Lyell's work reflected an attitude that was a "compound of science, philosophy, and religion" (83). This new world view incorporated a new respect Text of the Paper: The entire text of the paper is shown below. However, the text is somewhat scrambled. We want to give you as much information as we possibly can about our papers and essays, but we cannot give them away for free. In the text below you will find that while disordered, many of the phrases are essentially intact. From this text you will be able to get a solid sense of the writing style, the concepts addressed, and the sources used in the research paper. Moreover, the Bible wouldplace the earth's age at roughly 6, years, in direct contradiction toevidence based on the fossil record. Herschel influenced Darwin intwo ways. Noting the many substantial gaps infossil evidence, Cuvier opposed the idea that organic forms might undergogradual change, and concluded that only a limited number of organic formswas possible. Newton's work in astronomy not only provided a basis forthe nebular hypothesis, but also represented a major triumph in the processof making deductions based on empirical data. Chicago: U Chicago P, 1979.----------------------- 1 Works CitedDarwin, Charles. In purely scientific terms, the Darwinian revolution came about asthe result of gradual refinement of a group of ideas concerning the fossilrecord and the origins of organic species. Rous adds that fromthis standpoint, the very idea of evolution is impossible because anorganism belongs either to one form or some other form, but organisms onthe border between Forms are logically precluded" (3). Thisconsensus is reflected in Herschel's writings from 1831-1841. The fossil record suggested that they did, though this wasfar from proven, and Lamarck himself opposed the extinction hypothesis.However, Lamarck did propose that both animal and plant life occurred onascending scales, from the simple to the complex. The philosophy of J. Chambers also arguedagainst Lamarck's idea that evolution occurs because of needs. In 1844, the publication of an anonymous treatise on evolution(claimed some forty years later by Robert Chambers) had a dramatic effecton both the intellectual community and the general public, although incompletely opposite ways. In summary, the Darwinian revolution not only contributed to anemerging world view, but was also profoundly affected by this view. Second, Darwin actively soughtto mold his work on the hypothetico-deductive models as seen in hisstatement that "this whole volume is one long argument" (Darwin 459). Lyell provided inspiration to Darwin,although he would continue to oppose the idea of transmutation well after1859. As will be discussedlater, teleology plays an important role in the evolutionist drama.Indeed, Lamarck viewed himself as religious in that he believed in anultimate Creator. And in short order theworks of Whewell and others began to loosen the tight hold of teleology. Rous (7) points out thatthis idea had been hinted at as far back as Plato, and thus was notoriginal with Lamarck. Natural theology had considerable acceptance in Germany,and by 183 this movement had spread to Great Britain, as reflected in thework of Carlyle. Rous (145) points out that Mill's work was amajor factor in popularizing an idea that was fundamental to evolution.This idea was that the universe-- including humans and other organic beings--is subject to natural regularities, or laws that apply in all instances. Cuvier's teleology led him to believe that all organiccomponents had to maintain a kind of harmony with the basic purposes of theorganism; thus, alteration of one part would destroy the harmony. First, the Biblical version ofGenesis flatly precluded an evolutionary theory. The scientific model underlyingthis development had its roots in the nebular hypothesis, which postulatedthat the universe was formed out of gaseous nebulae, as opposed to beingcreated by metaphysical forces (Rous 4). Reliance on this type ofreason grew in popularity to the point where, as Rous points out (59),British philosophers of science were largely agreed that the Newton-Bacontype science was the model all others should strive to emulate. Mill also helped pave the way for acceptanceof the Darwinian revolution. First, he argued that the fossil record adequately,demonstrated a relatively gradual progression from invertebrates up tomammals--which is what an evolutionary theory would require. He sought theories that postulate cause-effect relationships, which iswhat natural selection would prove to be. Rous notesthat Plato's philosophy had strong evolutionary implications. Of equal importance, his treatise was so vilified by the religiouscommunity and the philosophic community, thereby illustrating further thethesis that the issue of evolution had implications far beyond science. It was regarded as asignificant contributor to social stability, especially during the periodof dire famine in the 184 s. This new world view incorporated a new respect for thepowers of natural science, focusing on the general ideal that the worldoperated according to discoverable natural laws, as opposed to revealedreligious truths. Also, during the years between 1844 and1859, the evolutionist point of view was materially advanced by theoreticalcontributions from Owen, Huxley, Hooker, and Spencer. One way that this came about was through increasing scientificsophistication. He further theorized that the cause for thisdynamic state was to be found in the needs of each organism, arguing thatthese needs, perhaps through new habits, somehow led to physical changes.In this sense, Lamarck espoused the idea of teleology--the notion thatchanges occur due to some kind of effort or design. However,Chambers felt that transmutation from one species to another had occurredin a single step rather than as a gradual process. Moreover, as Rous points out, the evolutionary point ofview moved rapidly from the status of an almost heretical viewpoint to atheory with wide intellectual and popular acceptance (Rous xii). This work quickly became highly popular with theBritish public, thus absorbing a good deal of the "new theory" shock thatDarwin would otherwise have faced (Rous 132). Rous (15) argues that the British were especiallyconcerned with the relationship between science and religion and no issuecould be more central to this relationship than evolution. However, Lamarck did take the crucial step ofproposing that the scale of nature was in a state of constant change:dynamic rather than static. Lyell strongly favored the concept that the earth was in a steadystate, meaning that the earth underwent repeated periods of turmoil anddecay, but that geologic periods were essentially similar. Herschelargued for theories that explained events rather than just describing them. Lamarck' s contemporary, the anatomist Georges Cuvier, integrated thefossil record somewhat differently. In time, this hypothesis led tocomparable speculations about the origins of organic species. Religious considerations also played a major role in the Darwinianrevolution. The British geologist Charles Lyell became a central figure at thispoint. In summary,although Chambers did not support the of evolutionary theory that Darwinwas to propose, he did help pave the way by popularizing the concept ofevolution through progression. The Darwinian revolution, encompassing the first six decades of the19th Century, constitutes one of the most significant turning points innatural science. The foregoing paragraphs demonstrate that the questions Darwin dealtwith had been on the scene for several decades. Darwin was quite candidabout his debts to his predecessors. Thisrapid acceptance occurred not only because of scientific validity, but alsobecause the basic ideas meshed with other intellectual developments of thatera (Rous xiii). The impact of theDarwinian revolution thus goes far beyond science, influencing not only thescope of scientific inquiry, but also our views on the nature of socialorder itself. For Lyell, thisimplied that there was no directional progression in either the organic orinorganic world. This can be seen in the way he frameshis arguments so as to refer specifically to issues formerly raised byothers. Furthermore, this increased freedom to theorize free ofreligious restraints continued to reverberate in intellectual endeavors,stimulating secular explanations of the physical and social world thatwould not have been easily tolerated in earlier times. A more materialistphilosophy was necessary to the evolutionist point of view. Thus, in a scientificsense, Great Britain was primed for a theory such as Darwin's, and when itappeared it was able to gain rapid acceptance. The thesis of this paper is that the Darwinian revolutioncan be seen as part of a new world view, encompassing religion andphilosophy as well as science. The tenets of what Rous (64) labels "revealed religion"opposed evolutionism in several ways. He alsoadvocated the Meckel-Serres law which proposed that human embryos gothrough various stages reflecting adult forms of lower animals. Thereason for this lies in the changes in European theology during the firsthalf of the 19th Century. It is thus likely that had Darwin's work appeared acentury earlier, it would have encountered much greater resistance. Rous notes that religion was takenvery seriously in 19th-Century Great-Britain. As mentioned earlier, the revolution hinged on areas other thanscience, in particular the areas of philosophy and religion. By 18 ,speculations about evolution of organic life were beginning to appear inEurope, most notably on the part of Lamarck. Plato'stheory of Forms asserted that worldly objects have particular propertiesbecause they reflect specific unchanging "Forms" (3). As a result, mostscientists sought to maintain a degree of harmony between science andorganized religion. For example, he discusses the fossil record and geographicdistribution in much the same terms as other authors, although reachingdifferent conclusions in many instances (Darwin 464, 477). Lamarck asked, for example, did species actuallybecome extinct? In contrast, much of thescientific community unleashed a barrage of criticism against Chambers'work. Moreover, religion was a major part of thepower structure, so theories that opposed religious doctrines were sure tobe strongly criticized. Darwin originally subscribed to the steady-state view butat some point reversed himself, a judgement of central importance to histheory. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. In addition, most scientists of that period weremembers of the established Protestant church, resulting in distinct tiesbetween the church and the scientific network. Chambers also aided Darwin by converting many people to theevolutionary point of view, advocating several points of view that Darwinlater utilized. The interconnection between science and religion can be seen in thework of Lyell, who maintained a strongly teleological position. The de-emphasis on revealed religious truth, coupled with materialist philosophiesand the Baconian modes of reasoning, had already shaken many foundations ofthe established intellectual order by the time Darwin published his epochalwork in 1859. However, the dominance of teleology was still largelyintact, notwithstanding Hume's famous 1779 critique of the argument for theexistence of God based on the concept of design. In contrast to the revealed religion centered around the Bible andchurch dogma, the ideal of natural theology focused on knowledge of Godderived through a person's direct experience of the world, utilizing thepowers of reason. First, Herschel strongly endorsed the work of Lyell, and Darwinwas highly impressed with Herschel's views. Lyell aided Darwin's cause by arguing that species became extinctby means of natural laws, but he did not apply this reasoning to newspecies, believing instead that new organisms were responsible for theformation of new species. Lyell not only focused the attention of Great Britain on theevolutionary issue, but also contributed important pieces to the puzzlethat Darwin would ultimately solve. Lyell wasconcerned that an evolutionary theory would reduce humans to a theoreticalstatus no different from that of other organisms, in contrast to churchdogma about the dignity of humans versus the lower animals. The Darwinian Revolution. Organized religion had to adjust its dogma to takeaccount of the rapidly growing capabilities of science to explain observedevidence, and also to accommodate the contradictions between such evidenceand traditional church positions, such as the age of the earth. For example, Rous notes that Lyell's workreflected an attitude that was a "compound of science, philosophy, andreligion" (83). S. By 18 9, Lamarck had raised many of the questions which proved to becentral to Darwin's theory, although many of Lamarck's answers are nowviewed as incorrect. Moreover, the writings ofFrancis Bacon strongly supported hypothetico-deductive mode of theorizingthat had lain dormant during the Middle Ages. London: Murray, 1859.Rous, M. By the 185 s, German-inspired criticism had convinced many religiousfigures that the traditional positions of revealed religion would not longbe able to withstand the rapidly accumulating evidence of science.Accordingly, many traditional Christian doctrines were beginning to beinterpreted more flexibly in order to accommodate scientific theories.Nonetheless, it is striking that Darwin would himself refer to the laws ofthe Creator (488). If this paper is not what you are looking for, you can search again: Search for: or Click here to request an essay written just for you.

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